Biodiversity and carbon storage are correlated along a land use intensity gradient in a tropical montane forest watershed,Mexico

Tropical montane cloud forest landscapes are changing, and forest conversion to other land uses is a major driver of biodiversity loss. Land use intensification can lead to significant losses in biodiversity and carbon storage (C); however, the impacts may vary greatly depending on land use type, management practices, and environmental context. We investigated how biodiversity and C are related along a gradient of land use intensification characterized by four dominant land uses in the upper part of Antigua River watershed, Mexico. The land uses were montane cloud forest, secondary forest, and traditional and intensive shade coffee plantations. We determined tree species composition, diversity, ecosystem structure, wood density and C content in dominant tree species to assess aboveground biomass (AGB) and C storage within eight study sites across the land use intensity gradient. A total of 83 tree species was recorded. A canonical correspondence analysis indicated that land uses are separated by particular tree species assemblages. Forests had higher basal area, density, and biomass than coffee plantations, however, the traditional shade coffee plantation had values similar to secondary forest. Calculating C using the standard estimate of 50% of AGB resulted in an overestimation of stored C by 5.8 to 4.1% compared to calculations based on actual measurements. Carbon storage in AGB and biodiversity were strongly and positively related across the land use intensity gradient, although the distinction between the two different intensities of coffee plantation management was not consistently as clear as we had expected. Carbon was highest in forest, but secondary forests and traditional shade coffee plantation had similar C, while intensive coffee had the lowest C content. These results highlight the importance of considering the potential of low intensity land uses such as traditional coffee plantations to mitigate biodiversity loss and preserve ecosystem functions as part of conservation efforts.     

Effects of management intensity on ant diversity in cocoa plantation (Oume,centre west Côte d’Ivoire)

Anthropogenic habitat modifications, including conversion of forest to agricultural production cause losses of native species. In this study we examined the losses suffered by ant communities in relation to the intensity of management in cocoa plantations established in former tropical forest. An extensive sampling protocol consisting of pitfall trapping, leaf litter sampling, soil sampling and hand sampling was used to characterize ant species richness and composition in the native forest and compare it with three cocoa farms differing in their management intensity. Species richness was negatively correlated with management intensity and differed greatly between management practices and the forest. Two subfamilies (Myrmicinae and Amblyoponinae) showed a significant negative correlation with agricultural intensification probably because their species are constrained to living in forest like habitat. The species composition differed greatly between management practices and the forest. Intensively and moderately managed cocoa plantations were most dissimilar to the forest. In contrast, forest ants were well represented in the least intensively managed plantation. Overall, the findings of this study show that only slightly managed cocoa plantations sustain an ant diversity that comes close to that of the forest. This also holds true for cocoa plantations on former agricultural, and thus previously heavily used, land. The findings may help in the conservation of biodiversity as management practices most likely to sustain forest like ant communities have been identified.     

Dung Beetle and Terrestrial Mammal Diversity in Forests, Indigenous Agroforestry Systems and Plantain Monocultures in Talamanca, Costa Rica

In order to explore the importance of indigenous agroforestry systems for biodiversity conservation, we compared the abundance, species richness and diversity of dung beetles and terrestrial mammals across a gradient of different land use types from agricultural monocultures (plantains) to agroforestry systems (cocoa and banana) and forests in the BriBri and Cabécar indigenous reserves in Talamanca, Costa Rica. A total of 132,460 dung beetles of 52 species and 913 tracks of 27 terrestrial mammal species were registered. Dung beetle species richness and diversity were greatest in the forests, intermediate in the agroforestry systems and lowest in the plantain monocultures, while dung beetle abundance was greatest in the plantain monocultures. The number of mammal tracks per plot was significantly higher in forests than in plantain monocultures, whereas mammal species richness was higher in forests than in either cocoa agroforestry systems or plantain monocultures. Species composition of both terrestrial mammals and dung beetles also varied across the different land use types. Our study indicates that indigenous cocoa and banana agroforestry systems maintain an intermediate level of biodiversity (which is less than that of the original forest but significantly greater than that of plantain monocultures) and provide suitable habitat for a number of forest-dependent species. Although the agroforestry systems appear to serve as favorable habitats for many terrestrial mammal species, their potential positive contribution to mammal conservation is being offset by heavy hunting pressure in the reserves. As in other agricultural landscapes, the conservation of biodiversity in Talamanca will depend not only on maintaining the existing forest patches and reducing the conversion of traditional agroforestry systems to monocultures, but also on reducing hunting pressure.     

Does flooding of rice fields after cultivation contribute to wetland plant conservation in southern Brazil?

Question: Does flooding of rice fields after cultivation contribute to wetland plant conservation in southern Brazil? Location: Rice fields in the coastal plain of southern Brazil. Methods: Six rice fields with different management practices were randomly selected (three dry rice fields and three flooded rice fields). Six collections were carried out over the rice cultivation cycle. Richness and biomass were measured using the quadrat method. Results: A total of 88 macrophyte species was recorded. There was no statistical interaction between management practices and rice cultivation phases for macrophyte richness and biomass. Macrophyte species richness and biomass changed over time, but were similar between flooded and dry rice fields. The first three axes generated by detrended correspondence analysis explained 29% of the variation in species composition and the multivariate analysis of variance showed that there was a statistical interaction between management practices and agricultural periods. Conclusions: Rice fields may help to conserve an important fraction of the aquatic macrophyte diversity of wetlands of southern Brazil by providing the setting up of a greater number of species within the agricultural landscape. However, rice fields must not be viewed as surrogate systems for natural wetlands. The difference in species composition between flooded and dry rice fields is interesting in terms of biodiversity conservation. If rice producers could keep part of their agricultural land flooded during the fallow phase, this management practice could be an important strategy for the conservation of biodiversity in areas where natural wetlands have been converted to rice fields.     

The impact of land conversion on plant biodiversity in the forest zone of Cameroon

Floristic surveys were carried out in different land use systems(primary and secondary forest, fallows of different ages, cocoa plantations,crop fields) within the forest zone of Cameroon, to assess the impact of landconversion on above-ground plant biodiversity. Beside various diversity studies,plant density was measured and diameter at breast height was estimated.The results showed that the forest areas, which represent thehistoric biodiversity of the region, preserve the greatest number of species(160 species in primary forest and 171 in secondary forest). Our resultsindicate the relatively great importance of secondary forests as refuge areasfor primary forest plant species that may function as a starting point forpossible regeneration of original biodiversity. Species richness is reducedprogressively from the original forest (160 spp.) and secondary forests (171spp.), to Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae) fallow fields(149 spp.), to an old fallow field (139 spp.), to a cocoa plantation (116 spp.)and to the farmland (64 spp.), where only weeds and crops contribute essentiallyto plant biodiversity. Also the number of species that are used for non-timberproducts (construction, food and medicines) decreased with increased landconversion.     

Biodiversity conservation in cocoa production landscapes: an overview

Cocoa agroforests that retain a floristically diverse and structurally complex shade canopy have the potential to harbour significant levels of biodiversity, yet few studies have documented the plant and animal species occurring within these systems or within landscapes dominated by cocoa production. In this special issue, we bring together nine studies from Latin America, Africa and Asia that document the contribution of cocoa agroforestry systems to biodiversity conservation, and explore how the design, management and location of these systems within the broader landscape influence their value as habitats, resources and biological corridors. Tree diversity within the cocoa production systems is variable, depending on management, cultural differences, location and farm history, among other factors. Animal diversity is typically highest in those cocoa agroforests that have high plant diversity, structurally complex canopies, and abundant surrounding forest cover. In general, both plant and animal diversity within cocoa agroforests is greater than those of other agricultural land uses, but lower than in the original forest habitat. There are several emerging threats to biodiversity conservation within cocoa production landscapes, including the loss of remaining forest cover, the simplification of cocoa shade canopies and the conversion of cocoa agroforestry systems to other agricultural land uses with lower biodiversity value. To counter these threats and conserve biodiversity over the long-term, land management should focus on conserving native forest habitat within cocoa production landscapes, maintaining or restoring floristically diverse and structurally complex shade canopies within cocoa agroforests, and retaining other types of on-farm tree cover to enhance landscape connectivity and habitat availability.     

Cocoa farms in the Mount Cameroon region: biological and cultural diversity in local livelihoods

A study was undertaken around Mt Cameroon to examine the role of biological and cultural diversity in the livelihood strategies of indigenous villagers and migrants to the region. Surveys of resources consumed and sold by 118 households were undertaken in five villages over the course of 1 year, the perspectives and practices of cocoa farmers documented, and useful tree species retained or planted on six cocoa farms mapped. Cocoa farms in this region generate more significant benefits for biodiversity conservation and local livelihoods than commercial plantations, but also place pressure on forest reserves and require chemical inputs. Roughly 50 tree species are commonly retained or planted on cocoa farms, primarily for timber or food, with many of these having high conservation value. Average tree density of non-cocoa trees was 15 trees per hectare, with tree densities higher, and a larger percentage of species used, on indigenous Bomboko farms than migrant farms. Both migrant and indigenous households rely on forest as a complement to farm income, but indigenous households do this to a far greater extent, while also making extensive use of fallow and home gardens. Indigenous households also derive roughly four times the income from wild and native species compared to migrants. While diversified cocoa farms contribute to conservation and livelihoods in the region, indigenous livelihoods grow from and require the conservation of a broader range of species and habitats, including natural forest.     

运用傣族的传统信仰保护西双版纳植物多样性的探讨

探讨不同的途径来保护日益减少的生物多样性已成为国际社会关注的一个热点。研究证明依靠西双版纳傣族传统信仰文化而建立的龙山林与寺庙庭园 ,就象一些小保护区和小植物园一样在植物多样性的保护中发挥了重要作用。在此基础上 ,探讨了在人口增加、森林减少和生活方式发生一定改变的今天通过成立宗教植物保护协会来运用信仰的力量参与生物多样性的管理、通过多层次培训教育提高公众的保护意识与技能 ,通过示范来鼓励土著民族参与等多种方法来保护该地区生物多样性的途径 ,受到了良好的效果。     

Exploring the effect of soil management intensity on taxonomic and functional diversity of ants in Mediterranean olive groves

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Bats are Not Birds – Different Responses to Human Land‐use on a Tropical Mountain

Land‐use intensification has consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, with various taxonomic groups differing widely in their sensitivity. As land‐use intensification alters habitat structure and resource availability, both factors may contribute to explaining differences in animal species diversity. Within the local animal assemblages the flying vertebrates, bats and birds, provide important and partly complementary ecosystem functions. We tested how bats and birds respond to land‐use intensification and compared abundance, species richness, and community composition across a land‐use gradient including forest, traditional agroforests (home garden), coffee plantations and grasslands on Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Furthermore, we asked how sensitive different habitat and feeding guilds of bats and birds react to land‐use intensification and the associated alterations in vegetation structure and food resource availability. In contrast to our expectations, land‐use intensification had no negative effect on species richness and abundance of all birds and bats. However, some habitat and feeding guilds, in particular forest specialist and frugivorous birds, were highly sensitive to land‐use intensification. Although the habitat guilds of both, birds and bats, depended on a certain degree of vegetation structure, total bat and bird abundance was mediated primarily by the availability of the respective food resources. Even though the highly structured southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro are able to maintain diverse bat and bird assemblages, the sensitivity of avian forest specialists against land‐use intensification and the dependence of the bat and bird habitat guilds on a certain vegetation structure demonstrate that conservation plans should place special emphasis on these guilds.     

Biodiversity and fish farming intensification in French fishpond systems

Fishponds are artificial ecosystems in which biodiversity may be strongly affected by fish farming management. We studied biodiversity variation along a gradient of fish farming intensification within a 180-pond sample of a French region to establish whether biodiversity primarily depended on extensive management with the alternative hypothesis that some habitat characteristics could compensate for the effect of intensification. We compared the relationships of three biodiversity indicators (breeding birds, protected plants, macrophytes) to an index of intensification and to habitat characteristics likely to influence each indicator. In all selected indicators, species richness did not vary according to the composite intensification gradient. Protected plant richness was best explained by periodic drainage, which could thus benefit biodiversity in intensified fishponds provided that shallow littoral areas are still present. Bird richness was linked to macrophyte cover and probably to reed bed areas. Macrophyte richness and coverage were negatively influenced by low water transparency and high fish biomass which seemed likely to affect bird habitat above 350–400 kg/ha. Aquatic vegetation, which may reflect interactive effects of environmental factors and fish farming management, may then contribute to assessment of the ecological status of fishponds under the E.U. Water Framework Directive.     

国家植物园植物文化建设与植物多样性保护和管理

生物文化对生物多样性保护具有重要意义,植物园的形成和发展在历史长河中处处体现着人类因物质和精神需求而形成的植物文化。现代植物园在植物迁地保护上虽然做出了卓越贡献,但其植物文化的建设稍显滞后。在全球生物多样性保护工作的开展过程中,传统文化对生物多样性保护和生物资源可持续利用的重要作用越来越被重视。在此背景下,该文探讨了生物文化多样性和生物多样性之间紧密联系、共同演化的关系,回顾了早期植物园和我国古典园林中植物文化的体现; 通过对全球3 085个现代植物园主要功能的分析,发现开展了民族植物学研究的植物园占比7.36%,开展了保护生物学研究的植物园占比11.18%,制定了植物保护计划的占比17.18%,从而揭示了现代植物园保护功能的提升和文化功能的弱化。基于当前植物园植物多样性有效保护中对植物文化建设的需求,该文进一步分析了我国植物园植物文化建设的不足,主要包括:(1)植物物种多样性信息中植物文化信息数据不足;(2)对生物多样性保护中传统知识惠益分享的考虑欠缺;(3)缺少以文化展现植物多样性的主题园。在此基础上,该文聚焦国家植物园植物多样性保护和管理的目标,从植物多样性保护和利用、惠益共享、公众参与3个层面对国家植物园体系中的植物文化建设提出了建议,以期为我国建设具有中国生态文明特色的国家植物园体系提供参考。     

The contribution of cacao agroforests to the conservation of lower canopy ant and beetle diversity in Indonesia

The ongoing destruction of tropical rainforests has increased the interest in the potential value of tropical agroforests for the conservation of biodiversity. Traditional, shaded agroforests may support high levels of biodiversity, for some groups even approaching that of undisturbed tropical forests. However, it is unclear to what extent forest fauna is represented in this diversity and how management affects forest fauna in agroforests. We studied lower canopy ant and beetle fauna in cacao agroforests and forests in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, a region dominated by cacao agroforestry. We compared ant and beetle species richness and composition in forests and cacao agroforests and studied the impact of two aspects of management intensification (the decrease in shade tree diversity and in shade canopy cover) on ant and beetle diversity. The agroforests had three types of shade that represented a decrease in tree diversity (high, intermediate and low diversity). Species richness of ants and beetles in the canopies of the cacao trees was similar to that found in lower canopy forest trees. However, the composition of ant and beetle communities differed greatly between the agroforest and forest sites. Forest beetles suffered profoundly from the conversion to agroforests: only 12.5% of the beetle species recorded in the forest sites were also found in the agroforests and those species made up only 5% of all beetles collected from cacao. In contrast, forest ants were well represented in agroforests, with 75% of all species encountered in the forest sites also occurring on cacao. The reduction of shade tree diversity had no negative effect on ants and beetles on cacao trees. Beetle abundances and non-forest ant species richness even increased with decreasing shade tree diversity. Thinning of the shade canopy was related to a decrease in richness of forest ant species on cacao trees but not of beetles. The contrasting responses of ants and beetles to shade tree management emphasize that conservation plans that focus on one taxonomic group may not work for others. Overall ant and beetle diversity can remain high in shaded agroforests but the conservation of forest ants and beetles in particular depends primarily on the protection of natural forests, which for forest ants can be complemented by the conservation of adjacent shaded cacao agroforests.     

Water availability drives aboveground biomass and bird richness in forest restoration plantings to achieve carbon and biodiversity cobenefits

To combat global warming and biodiversity loss, we require effective forest restoration that encourages recovery of species diversity and ecosystem function to deliver essential ecosystem services, such as biomass accumulation. Further, understanding how and where to undertake restoration to achieve carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation would provide an opportunity to finance ecosystem restoration under carbon markets. We surveyed 30 native mixed‐species plantings in subtropical forests and woodlands in Australia and used structural equation modeling to determine vegetation, soil, and climate variables most likely driving aboveground biomass accrual and bird richness and investigate the relationships between plant diversity, aboveground biomass accrual, and bird diversity. We focussed on woodland and forest‐dependent birds, and functional groups at risk of decline (insectivorous, understorey‐nesting, and small‐bodied birds). We found that mean moisture availability strongly limits aboveground biomass accrual and bird richness in restoration plantings, indicating potential synergies in choosing sites for carbon and biodiversity purposes. Counter to theory, woody plant richness was a poor direct predictor of aboveground biomass accrual, but was indirectly related via significant, positive effects of stand density. We also found no direct relationship between aboveground biomass accrual and bird richness, likely because of the strong effects of moisture availability on both variables. Instead, moisture availability and patch size strongly and positively influenced the richness of woodland and forest‐dependent birds. For understorey‐nesting birds, however, shrub cover and patch size predicted richness. Stand age or area of native vegetation surrounding the patch did not influence bird richness. Our results suggest that in subtropical biomes, planting larger patches to higher densities, ideally using a diversity of trees and shrubs (characteristics of ecological plantings) in more mesic locations will enhance the provision of carbon and biodiversity cobenefits. Further, ecological plantings will aid the rapid recovery of woodland and forest bird richness, with comparable aboveground biomass accrual to less diverse forestry plantations.     

Changes in ant communities along an age gradient of cocoa cultivation in the Oumé region,central Côte d'Ivoire

We identified the extent to which ant diversity occurs despite conversion of forests into cocoa plantations by examining the communities across four age classes of plantations (classes I–IV with increasing age from 0–5 to 21–40 years) and in their original forests. An extensive sampling protocol consisting of pitfall trapping, leaf litter sampling, soil sampling and hand sampling was used to characterize ant species richness and composition in three replicates of each age class and in the remaining forest patches. A total of one hundred ant species was found in all habitats combined. While the forest was the richest habitat (73 species), species richness in the different plantation age classes varied as follows (sorted in descending order): class IV (69 species) > class III (57 species) > class I (52 species) > class II (43 species). Age gradient was thus significantly positively correlated with mean species richness and with the relative abundance of some subfamilies. The species composition differed greatly between some plantation age classes and the forest. The two youngest cocoa age classes (I and II) were most dissimilar to the forest. In contrast, forest ants were well represented in the old cocoa age classes (III and IV). Three functional guilds (generalist predators, specialist predators and territorially dominant arboreal species) were in their relative abundance significantly correlated to the age gradient. Overall, cocoa cultivations retaining a floristically diverse and structurally complex forest structure are a suitable management system for the conservation of ant species of the formerly forested habitats.     

Effects of Previous Land-Use on Plant Species Composition and Diversity in Mediterranean Forests

At some point in their history, most forests in the Mediterranean Basin have been subjected to intensive management or converted to agriculture land. Knowing how forest plant communities recovered after the abandonment of forest-management or agricultural practices (including livestock grazing) provides a basis for investigating how previous land management have affected plant species diversity and composition in forest ecosystems. Our study investigated the consequences of historical “land management” practices on present-day Mediterranean forests by comparing species assemblages and the diversity of (i) all plant species and (ii) each ecological group defined by species’ habitat preferences and successional status (i.e., early-, mid-, and late-successional species). We compared forest stands that differed both in land-use history and in successional stage. In addition, we evaluated the value of those stands for biodiversity conservation. The study revealed significant compositional differentiation among stands that was due to among-stand variations in the diversity (namely, species richness and evenness) of early-, intermediate-, and late-successional species. Historical land management has led to an increase in compositional divergences among forest stands and the loss of late-successional forest species.     

Assessing conservation values: biodiversity and endemicity in tropical land use systems

Despite an increasing amount of data on the effects of tropical land use on continental forest fauna and flora, it is debatable whether the choice of the indicator variables allows for a proper evaluation of the role of modified habitats in mitigating the global biodiversity crisis. While many single-taxon studies have highlighted that species with narrow geographic ranges especially suffer from habitat modification, there is no multi-taxa study available which consistently focuses on geographic range composition of the studied indicator groups. We compiled geographic range data for 180 bird, 119 butterfly, 204 tree and 219 understorey plant species sampled along a gradient of habitat modification ranging from near-primary forest through young secondary forest and agroforestry systems to annual crops in the southwestern lowlands of Cameroon. We found very similar patterns of declining species richness with increasing habitat modification between taxon-specific groups of similar geographic range categories. At the 8 km(2) spatial level, estimated richness of endemic species declined in all groups by 21% (birds) to 91% (trees) from forests to annual crops, while estimated richness of widespread species increased by +101% (trees) to +275% (understorey plants), or remained stable (-2%, butterflies). Even traditional agroforestry systems lost estimated endemic species richness by -18% (birds) to -90% (understorey plants). Endemic species richness of one taxon explained between 37% and 57% of others (positive correlations) and taxon-specific richness in widespread species explained up to 76% of variation in richness of endemic species (negative correlations). The key implication of this study is that the range size aspect is fundamental in assessments of conservation value via species inventory data from modified habitats. The study also suggests that even ecologically friendly agricultural matrices may be of much lower value for tropical conservation than indicated by mere biodiversity value.     

Ferns,frogs, lizards,birds and bats in forest fragments and shade cacao plantations in two contrasting landscapes in the Atlantic forest,Brazil

The traditional shade cacao plantations (cabrucas) of southern Bahia, Brazil, are biologically rich habitats, encompassing many forest-dwelling species. However, a critical question for the conservation management of this specific region, and the highly fragmented Atlantic forest in general, is to what extent the conservation value of cabrucas relies on the presence of primary forest habitat in the landscape. We investigated the relative importance of cabrucas and forests for the conservation of five diverse biological groups (ferns, frogs, lizards, birds and bats) in two contrasting landscapes in southern Bahia, one dominated by forest with some interspersed cabrucas, and one dominated by cabrucas with interspersed forest fragments. The community structure (richness, abundance and diversity) of all biological groups differed between cabrucas and forests, although these differences varied among groups. A high number of forest species was found in the cabrucas. However, there were pronounced differences between the two landscapes with regard to the ability of cabrucas to maintain species richness. Irrespective of the biological group considered, cabrucas located in the landscape with few and small forest fragments supported impoverished assemblages compared to cabrucas located in the landscape with high forest cover. This suggests that a greater extent of native forest in the landscape positively influences the species richness of cabrucas. In the landscape with few small forest fragments interspersed into extensive areas of shade cacao plantations, the beta diversity of birds was higher than in the more forested landscape, suggesting that forest specialist species that rarely ventured into cabrucas were randomly lost from the fragments. These results stress both the importance and the vulnerability of the small forest patches remaining in landscapes dominated by shade plantations. They also point to the need to preserve sufficient areas of primary habitat even in landscapes where land use practices are generally favorable to the conservation of biodiversity.     

Can the Results of Biodiversity-Ecosystem Productivity Studies Be Translated to Bioenergy Production?

Biodiversity experiments show that increases in plant diversity can lead to greater biomass production, and some researchers suggest that high diversity plantings should be used for bioenergy production. However, many methods used in past biodiversity experiments are impractical for bioenergy plantings. For example, biodiversity experiments often use intensive management such as hand weeding to maintain low diversity plantings and exclude unplanted species, but this would not be done for bioenergy plantings. Also, biodiversity experiments generally use high seeding densities that would be too expensive for bioenergy plantings. Here we report the effects of biodiversity on biomass production from two studies of more realistic bioenergy crop plantings in southern Michigan, USA. One study involved comparing production between switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) monocultures and species-rich prairie plantings on private farm fields that were managed similarly to bioenergy plantings. The other study was an experiment where switchgrass was planted in monoculture and in combination with increasingly species-rich native prairie mixtures. Overall, we found that bioenergy plantings with higher species richness did not produce more biomass than switchgrass monocultures. The lack of a positive relationship between planted species richness and production in our studies may be due to several factors. Non-planted species (weeds) were not removed from our studies and these non-planted species may have competed with planted species and also prevented realized species richness from equaling planted species richness. Also, we found that low seeding density of individual species limited the biomass production of these individual species. Production in future bioenergy plantings with high species richness may be increased by using a high density of inexpensive seed from switchgrass and other highly productive species, and future efforts to translate the results of biodiversity experiments to bioenergy plantings should consider the role of seeding density.