Impacts of extreme winter warming events on plant physiology in a sub‐Arctic heath community

Insulation provided by snow cover and tolerance of freezing by physiological acclimation allows Arctic plants to survive cold winter temperatures. However, both the protection mechanisms may be lost with winter climate change, especially during extreme winter warming events where loss of snow cover from snow melt results in exposure of plants to warm temperatures and then returning extreme cold in the absence of insulating snow. These events cause considerable damage to Arctic plants, but physiological responses behind such damage remain unknown. Here, we report simulations of extreme winter warming events using infrared heating lamps and soil warming cables in a sub‐Arctic heathland. During these events, we measured maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (PSII), photosynthesis, respiration, bud swelling and associated bud carbohydrate changes and lipid peroxidation to identify physiological responses during and after the winter warming events in three dwarf shrub species: Empetrum hermaphroditum, Vaccinium vitis‐idaea and Vaccinium myrtillus. Winter warming increased maximum quantum yield of PSII, and photosynthesis was initiated for E. hermaphroditum and V. vitis‐idaea. Bud swelling, bud carbohydrate decreases and lipid peroxidation were largest for E. hermaphroditum, whereas V. myrtillus and V. vitis‐idaea showed no or less strong responses. Increased physiological activity and bud swelling suggest that sub‐Arctic plants can initiate spring‐like development in response to a short winter warming event. Lipid peroxidation suggests that plants experience increased winter stress. The observed differences between species in physiological responses are broadly consistent with interspecific differences in damage seen in previous studies, with E. hermaphroditum and V. myrtillus tending to be most sensitive. This suggests that initiation of spring‐like development may be a major driver in the damage caused by winter warming events that are predicted to become more frequent in some regions of the Arctic and that may ultimately drive plant community shifts.     

Impacts of winter icing events on the growth,phenology and physiology of sub‐arctic dwarf shrubs

The Arctic is experiencing the greatest climate change in winter, including increases in freeze–thaw cycles that can result in ice encasement of vegetation. Ice encasement can expose plants to hypoxia and greater temperature extremes, but currently the impacts of icing on plants in the field remain little understood. With this in mind, a unique field manipulation experiment was established in heathland in northern Sweden with ice encasement simulated in early March 2008, 2009 and 2010 until natural thaw each spring. In the following summers we assessed the impacts on flowering, bud phenology, shoot growth and mortality and leaf damage (measured by chlorophyll fluorescence and electrolyte leakage) of the three dominant dwarf shrub species Empetrum nigrum, Vaccinium vitis‐idaea (both evergreen) and Vaccinium myrtillus (deciduous). Two consecutive winters of icing decreased V. vitis‐idaea flowering by 57%, while flowering of V. myrtillus and E. nigrum remained unaffected. Vaccinium myrtillus showed earlier budburst but shoot growth for all species was unchanged. Shoot mortality of V. myrtillus and V. vitis‐idaea increased after the first year (by 70 and 165%, respectively) and again for V. myrtillus following the third year (by 67%), while E. nigrum shoot mortality remained unaffected, as were chlorophyll fluorescence and electrolyte leakage in all species. Overall, the sub‐arctic heathland was relatively tolerant to icing, but the considerable shoot mortality of V. myrtillus contrasting with the general tolerance of E. nigrum suggests plant community structure in the longer term could change if winters continue to see a greater frequency of icing events.     

Impacts of extreme winter warming in the sub‐Arctic: growing season responses of dwarf shrub heathland

Climate change scenarios predict an increased frequency of extreme climatic events. In Arctic regions, one of the most profound of these are extreme and sudden winter warming events in which temperatures increase rapidly to above freezing, often causing snow melt across whole landscapes and exposure of ecosystems to warm temperatures. Following warming, vegetation and soils no longer insulated below snow are then exposed to rapidly returning extreme cold. Using a new experimental facility established in sub‐Arctic dwarf shrub heathland in northern Sweden, we simulated an extreme winter warming event in the field and report findings on growth, phenology and reproduction during the subsequent growing season. A 1‐week long extreme winter warming event was simulated in early March using infrared heating lamps run with or without soil warming cables. Both single short events delayed bud development of Vaccinium myrtillus by up to 3 weeks in the following spring (June) and reduced flower production by more than 80%: this also led to a near‐complete elimination of berry production in mid‐summer. Empetrum hermaphroditum also showed delayed bud development. In contrast, Vaccinium vitis‐idaea showed no delay in bud development, but instead appeared to produce a greater number of actively growing vegetative buds within plots warmed by heating lamps only. Again, there was evidence of reduced flowering and berry production in this species. While bud break was delayed, growing season measurements of growth and photosynthesis did not reveal a differential response in the warmed plants for any of the species. These results demonstrate that a single, short, extreme winter warming event can have considerable impact on bud production, phenology and reproductive effort of dominant plant species within sub‐Arctic dwarf shrub heathland. Furthermore, large interspecific differences in sensitivity are seen. These findings are of considerable concern, because they suggest that repeated events may potentially impact on the biodiversity and productivity of these systems should these extreme events increase in frequency as a result of global change. Although climate change may lengthen the growing season by earlier spring snow melt, there is a profound danger for these high‐latitude ecosystems if extreme, short‐lived warming in winter exposes plants to initial warm temperatures, but then extreme cold for the rest of the winter. Work is ongoing to determine the longer term and wider impacts of these events.     

Photosynthetic and phenological responses of dwarf shrubs to the depth and properties of snow

Snow is known to have a major impact on vegetation in arctic ecosystems, but little is known about how snow affects plants in boreal forests, where the snowpack is uneven due to canopy impact. The responses of two dwarf shrubs, the evergreen Vaccinium vitis‐idaea and the deciduous V. myrtillus, to snow conditions were studied in a snow manipulation experiment in southern Finland. The thermal insulation of the snowpack was expected to decrease with partial removal or compression of the snow, while addition of snow was expected to have the opposite effect. The penetration of light was manipulated by partial removal of snow or by formation of an artificial ice layer in the snowpack. CO₂ exchange measurements that were carried out at the time of maximum snow depth in late March indicated significant photosynthetic activity in the leaves of V. vitis‐idaea under snow. Net gain of CO₂ was observed in the daytime on all the manipulation plots, excluding the snow addition plots, where light intensity was very low. The subnivean photosynthesis compensated for a substantial proportion (up to 80%) of the respiratory CO₂ losses. Chlorophyll fluorescence measurements indicated reduced potential capacity of photosystem II in the leaves of V. vitis‐idaea on those plots where snow cover was thin. Neither V. vitis‐idaea nor V. myrtillus suffered from frost damage (assessed as electrolyte leakage) when thermal insulation was reduced by means of snow manipulations. No phenological responses were observed in V. vitis‐idaea, but in V. myrtillus bud burst, leaf unfolding and flowering were advanced by 1–3 days on the addition plots. The results of the present study show that dwarf shrubs respond to not only the thickness of snow but also the physical properties of snow, both of which are expected to change due to climatic warming.     

Impact of early and late winter icing events on sub‐arctic dwarf shrubs

Polar regions are predicted to undergo large increases in winter temperature and an increased frequency of freeze–thaw cycles, which can cause ice layers in the snow pack and ice encasement of vegetation. Early or late winter timing of ice encasement could, however, modify the extent of damage caused to plants. To determine impacts of the date of ice encasement, a novel field experiment was established in sub‐arctic Sweden, with icing events simulated in January and March 2008 and 2009. In the subsequent summers, reproduction, phenology, growth and mortality, as well as physiological indicators of leaf damage were measured in the three dominant dwarf shrubs: Vaccinium uliginosum, Vaccinium vitis‐idaea and Empetrum nigrum. It was hypothesised that January icing would be more damaging compared to March icing due to the longer duration of ice encasement. Following 2 years of icing, E. nigrum berry production was 83% lower in January‐iced plots compared to controls, and V. vitis‐idaea electrolyte leakage was increased by 69%. Conversely, electrolyte leakage of E. nigrum was 25% lower and leaf emergence of V. vitis‐idaea commenced 11 days earlier in March‐iced plots compared to control plots in 2009. There was no effect of icing on any of the other parameters measured, indicating that overall these study species have moderate to high tolerance to ice encasement. Even much longer exposure under the January icing treatment does not clearly increase damage.     

Dwarf shrub hydraulics: two Vaccinium species (Vaccinium myrtillus,Vaccinium vitis‐idaea) of the European Alps compared

Vaccinium myrtillus and Vaccinium vitis‐idaea are two dwarf shrubs widespread in the European Alps. We studied the hydraulics of these species hypothesizing that (1) the hydraulic architecture of dwarf shrubs differs from trees, (2) hydraulic properties reflect the species' ecological amplitude and (3) hydraulic properties vary spatially and seasonally. Key hydraulic parameters (osmotic potential, turgor loss point, xylem hydraulic conductivity, vulnerability to drought‐induced embolism, stomata closure, drought‐induced cell damage and embolism repair) and related wood anatomical traits (conduit diameter and conduit wall reinforcement) were analyzed at four sites in Tyrol, Austria. Both species exhibited low hydraulic safety as well as low hydraulic efficiency. Fifty percentage embolism accumulated at ?2.08 (V. myrtillus) and ?1.97 MPa (V. vitis‐idaea), 88% stomata closure was at ?2.19 and ?2.35 MPa, respectively. After drought, both species showed embolism repair on re‐watering. Site‐specific variation within species was low, while seasonal changes in embolism resistance and turgor loss point were observed. Results indicate that studied Vaccinium species have a high risk for embolism formation. This is balanced by refilling capacities, which are probably based on the small growth height of dwarf shrubs. V. vitis‐idaea, which occurs on drier sites, showed more efficient repair and a lower turgor loss point than V. myrtillus.     

Biomass distribution of two subalpine dwarf‐shrubs in relation to soil moisture and nutrient content

Question: Do soil water content and/or soil nitrogen (N) content and/or soil phosphorus (P) content affect the biomass of Vaccinium myrtillus and V. vitis‐idaea in a sub‐alpine heath? Location: Dolomites, northern Italy, 1800 m a.s.l. Methods: We determined above‐ground and below‐ground biomass of the shrubs at three sites, each on a different substrate type. At each site, we determined soil N‐ and P‐contents. We also determined leaf water potential (Psi;₁), N‐ and P‐concentrations in plant tissues and litter, as well as δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N in mature leaves. Results: V. myrtillus biomass was highest at the silicate site, V. vitis‐idaea biomass was highest at the carbonate site. Both shrubs had low biomass at the peat site, possibly due to a toxic effect of waterlogging in wet soils. For both species, pre‐dawn Psi;₁ indicated optimal hydration and midday Psi;₁ did not show any sign of water stress. Water use efficiency (WUE) did not differ among sites for any species. Whole‐plant nutrient concentrations showed that, with increasing biomass, N was diluted in V. myrtillus tissues while P was diluted in V. vitis‐idaea tissues. Foliar N‐concentration was higher overall for V. myrtillus. Foliar P‐concentration in V. myrtillus peaked at the silicate site. Foliar N : P ratios suggested that V. myrtillus was primarily P‐limited and V. vitis‐idaea primarily N‐limited. Conclusions: Water content affected the distribution of the two shrubs in a similar way, higher P‐availability in the soil enhanced V. myrtillus rather than V. vitis‐idaea.     

Regeneration strategies of dominant boreal forest dwarf shrubs in response to selective removal of understorey layers

Abstract. The deciduous Vaccinium myrtillus and the evergreen Vaccinium vitis‐idaea were subjected to five removal treatments of understorey layers: control, removal of the moss layer, removal of the field layer, removal of both moss and field layers and removal of moss, field and humus layers. A second factor, sowing, was included to investigate sexual reproduction after disturbance. Density of new ramets and seedlings and growth of annual shoots were studied for the first two growing seasons, whereas cover was measured for five growing seasons after disturbance treatment. Initially, vegetative production of new ramets and species cover increased rapidly in all disturbed plots, except for the most severe treatment, in which production of new ramets was virtually absent throughout the study. Full recovery following removal of the field layer only or both field and moss layers was reached after four years for V. myrtillus. V. vitis‐idaea recovered more quickly, after one year (removal of field layer only) and four years (removal of field and moss layers). The relative growth of V. myrtillus and V. vitis‐idaea increased in the latter treatment in terms of production of annual shoots and length of annual shoots, respectively. Seedling density increased after sowing in the most severe treatment. The results underscore the importance of vegetative growth for recovery of these species at moderate‐level disturbances. The high rate of sexual reproduction in the most severe treatment implies that strong mechanical disturbance is needed to enhance the establishment of new genotypes in these species.     

Climatic and biotic extreme events moderate long‐term responses of above‐ and belowground sub‐Arctic heathland communities to climate change

Climate change impacts are not uniform across the Arctic region because interacting factors causes large variations in local ecosystem change. Extreme climatic events and population cycles of herbivores occur simultaneously against a background of gradual climate warming trends and can redirect ecosystem change along routes that are difficult to predict. Here, we present the results from sub‐Arctic heath vegetation and its belowground micro‐arthropod community in response to the two main drivers of vegetation damage in this region: extreme winter warming events and subsequent outbreaks of the defoliating autumnal moth caterpillar (Epirrita autumnata). Evergreen dwarf shrub biomass decreased (30%) following extreme winter warming events and again by moth caterpillar grazing. Deciduous shrubs that were previously exposed to an extreme winter warming event were not affected by the moth caterpillar grazing, while those that were not exposed to warming events (control plots) showed reduced (23%) biomass from grazing. Cryptogam cover increased irrespective of grazing or winter warming events. Micro‐arthropods declined (46%) following winter warming but did not respond to changes in plant community. Extreme winter warming and caterpillar grazing suppressed the CO₂ fluxes of the ecosystem. Evergreen dwarf shrubs are disadvantaged in a future sub‐Arctic with more stochastic climatic and biotic events. Given that summer warming may further benefit deciduous over evergreen shrubs, event and trend climate change may both act against evergreen shrubs and the ecosystem functions they provide. This is of particular concern given that Arctic heath vegetation is typically dominated by evergreen shrubs. Other components of the vegetation showed variable responses to abiotic and biotic events, and their interaction indicates that sub‐Arctic vegetation response to multiple pressures is not easy to predict from single‐factor responses. Therefore, while biotic and climatic events may have clear impacts, more work is needed to understand their net effect on Arctic ecosystems.     

Plant responses to fertilization and exclusion of grazers on an arctic tundra heath

This study investigated the impacts of fertilization and grazing by Norwegian lemmings (Lemmus lemmus), grey‐sided voles (Clethrionomys rufocanus), and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) on a diverse tundra plant community dominated by deciduous shrubs. Four out of eight study areas, having a size of 2500 m² each, were fertilized with a N‐P‐K fertilizer and four areas served as unfertilized controls. Two types of exclosures were used within each study area, one to exclude solely reindeer, and one to exclude both rodents and reindeer. Open, grazed plots served as controls. During 5 years following the fertilization event the changes in vegetation inside and outside the exclosures were monitored using a point frequency method. The densities of rodents on the fertilized and unfertilized areas were investigated by live trapping and by counting nests of overwintering individuals. Reindeer do not graze on the study area during the growing season but migrate through this area in autumn and spring. Fertilization increased the abundance of vascular plants while grazing by reindeer and rodents decreased the abundance of vascular plants significantly on both fertilized and unfertilized areas. Rodents preferred clearly the fertilized areas during winter, decreasing the abundance of Vaccinium myrtillus and Vaccinium vitis‐idaea, while very little grazing occurred during summer. Graminoids showed the strongest positive response to fertilization and dominated the plant community on ungrazed plots, while winter grazing by both reindeer and rodents significantly decreased the abundance of graminoids. Deciduous shrubs (Betula nana, Vaccinium myrtillus) increased slightly but significantly due to fertilization and evergreen dwarf shrubs showed no response to fertilization. However, the use of functional growth forms for predicting the responses of nutrient enrichment and grazing must be questioned, as responses to fertilization as well as preferences by herbivores were shown to be species‐specific rather than uniform within functional groups based on plant growth forms.     

Water- and nutrient-use efficiency of a deciduous species, Vaccinium myrtillus, and an evergreen species, V. vitis-idaea, in a subalpine dwarf shrub heath in the southern Alps, Italy

Periodic measurements of gas‐exchange rates and determinations of foliar N and P concentrations were used for evaluating instantaneous water‐use efficiency and photosynthetic nutrient‐use efficiency in two co‐existing dwarf shrubs of different growth form (V. myrtillus, deciduous, and V. vitis‐idaea, evergreen) in a subalpine heath in the southern Alps of Italy. Those data were compared with cumulative assessments of water‐use efficiency and photosynthetic nutrient‐use efficiency obtained by measuring leaf carbon isotope discrimination in leaf tissues and by estimating nutrient resorption from senescing leaves. V. myrtillus presented higher dry‐weight based rates of net photosynthesis (A_weight) compared to V. vitis‐idaea. A_weight was positively correlated with foliar‐nutrient status and intercellular‐to‐ambient gradient in CO₂ concentrations. A_weight was, furthermore, negatively correlated with leaf specific mass. Instantaneous photosynthetic nutrient‐use efficiency did not differ between the two species but the percentages of N and P pools resorbed from senescing leaves were somewhat higher in the deciduous species. The evergreen species showed lower P concentrations in senescing leaves which indicated a higher proficiency in resorbing phosphorus compared to the deciduous species. In addition, the evergreen species achieved a higher carbon gain per unit foliar N and P, due to a longer mean residence time of both nutrients. The two species did not differ from each other with respect to both instantaneous and long‐term water‐use efficiency. This was consistent with the climatic pattern, showing no sign of water deficiency through the growing season. Current‐year V. vitis‐idaea leaves had a significantly higher Δ¹³C compared to previous‐year leaves, possibly mirroring a long term acclimation of evergreen leaves, as far as they age, to the habitat conditions in the understory where evergreen species are usually confined within mixed dwarf‐shrub communities.     

Sexual reproduction of clonal dwarf shrubs in a forest–tundra ecotone

Successful sexual reproduction may be more important for regeneration of clonal species in high-latitude and -altitude areas than has been previously suggested. We investigated the potential of Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea and Empetrum nigrum ssp. hermaphroditum (E. hermaphroditum) for sexual reproduction at three sites in the forest–tundra ecotone in Finnish Lapland. We studied whether the potential differs between plant communities, whether disturbance enhances germination, and whether seedling emergence is limited by seed availability. We established a field experiment with disturbance and sowing treatments, and monitored seed and seedling numbers and survival rates for two years. The number of mature seeds of V. myrtillus was higher in plants from the tundra heath than in those from the coniferous and mountain birch forests. The number of mature seeds and seedlings emerging from the seed bank of E. hermaphroditum tended also to be higher in the tundra heath. Disturbance marginally increased the seedling emergence of V. myrtillus and E. hermaphroditum, whereas sowing generally increased the seedling numbers. The seedling number of V. myrtillus was lower in the tundra heath and that of E. hermaphroditum was lower in the coniferous forest than at the other sites. Seedling survival was equal for all plant species at all sites. We conclude that the capacity for sexual reproduction varies among plant communities, and seed availability is a stronger constraint than microsite availability for the studied species. Once the crucial early phase of seedling establishment is overcome, seedling survival enables successful recruitment of V. myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea and E. hermaphroditum in the subarctic area.     

The impact of temperature regimes on development,dormancy breaking and germination of dwarf shrub seeds from arctic,alpine and boreal sites

It has been suggested that the infrequent sexual reproduction of arctic dwarf shrubs might be related to the harsh environmental conditions in which they live. If this is the case, then increases in temperature resulting from global climate change might drastically affect regeneration of arctic species. We examined whether recruitment of Empetrum nigrum ssp. hermaphroditum and Vaccinium uliginosum (hereafter E. nigrum and V. uliginosum) was affected by temperature during three reproductive stages: seed development, dormancy breakage and germination. Seeds were collected from an arctic, an alpine (only E. nigrum) and a boreal site with different climates; stored at different winter temperatures and incubated for germination at different temperatures. Seeds of V. uliginosum developed in the boreal region had a higher percentage germination than did seeds developed in the Arctic. In contrast, seeds of E. nigrum from the arctic site had a higher or similar percentage germination than did seeds from the alpine and boreal sites. Increased winter temperatures had no significant effect on resulting germination percentage of E. nigrum. However, V. uliginosum seeds from the arctic site suffered increased fungal attack (and thus decreased germination) when they were stratified under high winter temperatures. Seeds of both species increased germination with increased incubation temperatures. Our results suggest that both species would increase their germination in response to warmer summers. Longer summers might also favour the slow-germinating E. nigrum. However, increased winter temperatures might increase mortality due to fungal attack in V. uliginosum ecotypes that are not adapted to mild winters.     

Experimental icing affects growth,mortality, and flowering in a high Arctic dwarf shrub

Effects of climate change are predicted to be greatest at high latitudes, with more pronounced warming in winter than summer. Extreme mid‐winter warm spells and heavy rain‐on‐snow events are already increasing in frequency in the Arctic, with implications for snow‐pack and ground‐ice formation. These may in turn affect key components of Arctic ecosystems. However, the fitness consequences of extreme winter weather events for tundra plants are not well understood, especially in the high Arctic. We simulated an extreme mid‐winter rain‐on‐snow event at a field site in high Arctic Svalbard (78°N) by experimentally encasing tundra vegetation in ice. After the subsequent growing season, we measured the effects of icing on growth and fitness indices in the common tundra plant, Arctic bell‐heather (Cassiope tetragona). The suitability of this species for retrospective growth analysis enabled us to compare shoot growth in pre and postmanipulation years in icing treatment and control plants, as well as shoot survival and flowering. Plants from icing treatment plots had higher shoot mortality and lower flowering success than controls. At the individual sample level, heavily flowering plants invested less in shoot growth than nonflowering plants, while shoot growth was positively related to the degree of shoot mortality. Therefore, contrary to expectation, undamaged shoots showed enhanced growth in ice treatment plants. This suggests that following damage, aboveground resources were allocated to the few remaining undamaged meristems. The enhanced shoot growth measured in our icing treatment plants has implications for climate studies based on retrospective analyses of Cassiope. As shoot growth in this species responds positively to summer warming, it also highlights a potentially complex interaction between summer and winter conditions. By documenting strong effects of icing on growth and reproduction of a widespread tundra plant, our study contributes to an understanding of Arctic plant responses to projected changes in winter climatic conditions.     

Mineral Nutrient Requirements of Vaccinium vitis idaea and V. myrtillus

The mineral nutrient requirements of Vaccinium vitis idaea L. and V. myrtillus L. have been studied. It is found that the optimum nutrient proportions are similar to those of birch seedlings except for a relatively low potassium requirement. The nitrogen sources ammonium and nitrate are both usable at low concentrations. A system with both sources present seems preferable. The ammonium uptake is then much more rapid than the nitrate uptake. The optimum total concentration falls within the low salt range and is about the same as found for birch seedlings, but the sensitivity to high salt concentrations is more pronounced in the Vaccinium species. A very marked characteristic of the nutrient absorption is the rapid calcium uptake. The results are discussed in relation to similar experiments with birch and cucumber seedlings, representing species with a wide or calcareous ecological adaptation.     

Seasonal grazing effects by semi-domesticated reindeer on subarctic mountain birch forests

In northern Fennoscandia, the spatial and temporal grazing practices of semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) vary, which implies different grazing effects dependent on natural conditions as well as management regime (i.e., timing and intensity of grazing). We compared density and biomass of main plant groups in semi-dry mountain birch forests exposed to either long-term summer or winter grazing in three reindeer herding districts in the northernmost Finland. Percent plant cover, height, and biomass of reindeer lichens (Cladonia spp.) and dwarf shrubs (Vaccinium uliginosum, Calluna vulgaris, and Betula nana) were lower on summer ranges compared with winter ranges. The biomass of other dwarf shrubs (Vaccinium myrtillus and V. vitis-idaea), and graminoids and herbs, and the % cover of non-vegetated bare soil and litter were, however, higher on summer ranges than on winter ranges. Young mountain birch shoots (Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii) were less frequent on summer ranges than on winter ranges. The total leaf biomass under the browsing height of reindeer (<1.5 m) was also lower on summer ranges compared with winter ranges. Especially in drier and nutrient poor mountain birch forests, intensive summer grazing reduces the quantity of lichens and total plant biomass which affects the ecological state and productivity of these forests and also reduces especially their winter grazing value for reindeer. Therefore, in addition to regulating the maximum sustained numbers of reindeer, pasture rotation systems that effectively protect dry and nutrient poor vegetation from summer grazing and trampling should be encouraged.     

Partitioning of soil phosphorus regulates competition between Vaccinium vitis‐idaea and Deschampsia cespitosa

It has been hypothesized that the wide range of forms and complexities of phosphorus (P) in soil may result in resource partitioning that contributes to the maintenance of plant species diversity. Here, we test whether the graminoid, Deschampsia cespitosa, and the ericaceous shrub, Vaccinium vitis‐idaea, which often coexist, display preferences in utilization of P forms, and differ in their production of extracellular P‐degrading enzymes. We provided plants with no additional P, or P forms with decreasing lability, namely sodium phosphate (SP), D‐glucose 6 phosphate (DG6P), sodium phytate (PASS), and a combination of SP, DG6P, and PASS. We also tested if preferences for P forms affected the competitive outcomes between the two species compared between conspecifics, as indicated by shoot biomass and acquisition of nitrogen (N) and P. Both D. cespitosa and V. vitis‐idaea produced the greatest biomass when supplied with a mix of all three forms of P. Of the three forms of P tested alone, shoot biomass produced by both species was least when supplied with SP. D. cespitosa performed better when grown with PASS or a mix of all P forms compared with the performance of V. vitis‐idaea on these substrates. This was reflected by substantially greater phytase activity on the surface of its roots compared with V. vitis‐idaea. In contrast, V. vitis‐idaea produced more phosphomonoesterase to hydrolyze the simple organic P form, DG6P. Although N was kept constant in the treatments, the ability of plants to acquire it was dependent on species identity, competition, and P supply. These findings provide direct evidence for preferences toward specific forms of P and indicate a key role played by organic forms of P. The results support the idea that partitioning for soil P is one factor regulating plant competition, and ultimately, community composition. Our data also highlight the importance of the interplay between P supply and N acquisition.     

Evidence of enhanced freezing damage in treeline plants during six years of CO2 enrichment and soil warming

Climate change and elevated atmospheric CO₂ levels could increase the vulnerability of plants to freezing. We analyzed tissue damage resulting from naturally occurring freezing events in plants from a long–term in situ CO₂ enrichment (+ 200 ppm, 2001–2009) and soil warming (+ 4°C since 2007) experiment at treeline in the Swiss Alps (Stillberg, Davos). Summer freezing events caused damage in several abundant subalpine and alpine plant species in four out of six years between 2005 and 2010. Most freezing damage occurred when temperatures dropped below –1.5°C two to three weeks after snow melt. The tree Larix decidua and the dwarf shrubs Vaccinium myrtillus and Empetrum hermaphroditum showed more freezing damage under experimentally elevated CO₂ and/or temperatures than under control conditions. Soil warming induced a 50% die‐back of E. hermaphroditum during a single freezing event due to melting of the protective snow cover. Although we could not identify a clear mechanism, we relate greater freezing susceptibility to a combination of advanced plant phenology in spring and changes in plant physiology. The climate record since 1975 at the treeline site indicated a summer warming by 0.58°C/decade and a 3.5 days/decade earlier snow melt, but no significant decrease in freezing events during the vegetation period. Therefore, in a warmer climate with higher CO₂ levels but constant likelihood of extreme weather events, subalpine and alpine plants may be more susceptible to freezing events, which may partially offset expected enhanced growth with global change. Hence, freezing damage should be considered when predicting changes in growth of alpine plants or changes in community composition under future atmospheric and climate conditions.     

Understorey plant and soil responses to disturbance and increased nitrogen in boreal forests

Question: How do N fertilization and disturbance affect the understorey vegetation, microbial properties and soil nutrient concentration in boreal forests? Location: Kuusamo (66°22′N; 29°18′E) and Oulu (65°02′N; 25°47′E) in northern Finland. Methods: We conducted a fully factorial experiment with three factors: site (two levels), N fertilization (four levels) and disturbance (two levels). We measured treatment effects on understorey biomass, vegetation structure, and plant, soil and microbial N and C concentrations. Results: The understorey biomass was not affected by fertilization either in the control or in the disturbance treatment. Fertilization reduced the biomass of deciduous Vaccinium myrtillus. Disturbance had a negative effect on the biomass of V. myrtillus and evergreen Vaccinium vitis‐idaea and decreased the relative proportion of evergreen species. Fertilization and disturbance increased the biomass of grass Deschampsia flexuosa and the relative proportion of graminoids. The amount of NH₄⁺ increased in soil after fertilization, and microbial C decreased after disturbance. Conclusions: Our results suggest that the growth of slow‐growing Vaccinium species and soil microbes in boreal forests are not limited by N availability. However, significant changes in the proportion of dwarf shrubs to graminoids and a decrease in the biomass of V. myrtillus demonstrate the susceptibility of understorey vegetation to N enrichment. N enrichment and disturbance seem to have similar effects on understorey vegetation. Consequently, increasing N does not affect the rate or the direction of recovery after disturbance. Moreover, our study demonstrates the importance of understorey vegetation as a C source for soil microbes in boreal forests.     

Reduced early growing season freezing resistance in alpine treeline plants under elevated atmospheric CO2

The frequency of freezing events during the early growing season and the vulnerability to freezing of plants in European high‐altitude environments could increase under future atmospheric and climate change. We tested early growing season freezing sensitivity in 10 species, from four plant functional types (PFTs) spanning three plant growth forms (PGFs), from a long‐term in situ CO₂ enrichment (566 vs. 370 ppm) and 2‐year soil warming (+4 K) experiment at treeline in the Swiss Alps (Stillberg, Davos). By additionally tracking plant phenology, we distinguished indirect phenology‐driven CO₂ and warming effects from direct physiology‐related effects on freezing sensitivity. The freezing damage threshold (lethal temperature 50) under ambient conditions of the 10 treeline species spanned from ?6.7±0.3 °C (Larix decidua) to ?9.9±0.6 °C (Vaccinium gaultherioides). PFT, but not PGF, explained a significant amount of this interspecific variation. Long‐term exposure to elevated CO₂ led to greater freezing sensitivity in multiple species but did not influence phenology, implying that physiological changes caused by CO₂ enrichment were responsible for the effect. The elevated CO₂ effect on freezing resistance was significant in leaves of Larix, Vaccinium myrtillus, and Gentiana punctata and marginally significant in leaves of Homogyne alpina and Avenella flexuosa. No significant CO₂ effect was found in new shoots of Empetrum hermaphroditum or in leaves of Pinus uncinata, Leontodon helveticus, Melampyrum pratense, and V. gaultherioides. Soil warming led to advanced leaf expansion and reduced freezing resistance in V. myrtillus only, whereas Avenella showed greater freezing resistance when exposed to warming. No effect of soil warming was found in any of the other species. Effects of elevated CO₂ and soil warming on freezing sensitivity were not consistent within PFTs or PGFs, suggesting that any future shifts in plant community composition due to increased damage from freezing events will likely occur at the individual species level.