Children'S Attitudes About the Humane Treatment of Animals and Empathy: One-Year Follow up of a School-Based Intervention

ABSTRACT

This study assessed the maintenance of the effect of a year-long school-based humane education program on fourth grade children's attitudes toward animals. Generalization to human-directed empathy was also measured. Using a pretest-posttest (Year 1) follow-up (Year 2) design and ANCOVA, we found that the experimental group (children who experienced the program) humane attitudes mean was greater than the control group mean at initial posttesting and at the Year 2 follow up. At both Year 1 and Year 2 posttesting, the enhancement of attitudes toward animals generalized to human-directed empathy, especially when the quality of the children's relations with their pets was considered as a covariate. The results contribute to the growing literature on the significance of the relations between children and animals, and serve to encourage humane education efforts.     

The Relationship between Empathy,Perception of Pain and Attitudes toward Pets among Norwegian Dog Owners

ABSTRACT

Anthropomorphism, attachment level, and belief in animal mind, as well as owners' level of empathy and attitudes toward their pets, are some of the factors that affect human–animal interactions. Owners' ability to identify painful conditions in their pets may have important consequences for the welfare of these animals. In addition to characterizing the typical Norwegian dog owner, the aim of this work was to study the relationship between empathy, attitudes, and perceived animal pain. A sample of 3,413 dog owners in Norway received an internet-based questionnaire (QuestBack?), to which1896 responded. The questionnaire included four parts: demographics, the Pet Attitude Scale (PAS), the Animal Empathy Scale (AES), and the Pain Assessment Instrument (PAI). For the PAI, participants were presented with 17 photos, showing dogs experiencing painful situations of varying degrees, and were asked to rate the level of pain they believed each animal was enduring, using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Results showed that Norwegian dog owners had very high levels of animal-directed empathy and equally high levels of positive attitudes toward pets. There were differences based on gender, childhood pet keeping, income and education. Differences were also found rooted in owners' use of their dog, whether kept for companionship or hunting, as well as household size, an indication of human social relations. A strong, positive correlation (r = 0.58) was found between animal-directed empathy and positive attitudes toward pets. Empathy was found to be the best predictor of how people rated pain in dogs. The correlations were, however, moderate, indicating that other processes are also involved when observing animals in pain.     

Development of the Attitudes Toward Vegetarians Scale

Abstract

Studies have explored the motivations behind the decision to become vegetarian, and have explored the well being of vegetarians. However, little research has focused on the social psychological and interpersonal aspects of vegetarianism. The focus of this study was to develop a scale designed to measure attitudes toward vegetarians (ATVS). This scale measures a one-factor construct with adequate internal consistency. The ATVS correlated significantly with the construct of authoritarianism, and, as expected, the ATVS did not correlate significantly with social desirability. In addition, attitudes toward vegetarians were found to be generally positive. The positive attitudes toward vegetarians may be the result of using a college student population that was overwhelmingly female.     

Enhancing Children's Attitudes About the Humane Treatment of Animals: Generalization to Human-Directed Empathy

Abstract

We assessed the impact of a year-long, school-based humane education program on younger (first and second graders) and older (fourth and fifth graders) children's attitudes toward the treatment of animals. Generalization to human-directed empathy was also measured. Using a pretest-posttest design and ANCOVA, we found that the program enhanced the animal-related attitudes of children differentially, depending on grade level. For younger children, there was no significant difference between experimental (E) and control (C) group attitude means; however, qualitative analysis showed that greater enhancement of attitudes occurred for first grade E group children than for C group children at that grade level. No differences were present on the generalization measure of empathy. For older children, there was a significant difference between E and C group attitude means qualified by grade level—there was greater enhancement of humane attitudes for E group than for C group fourth graders but no difference for fifth graders. On the generalization measure of empathy, posttest means for the E group were significantly greater than means for the C group regardless of grade level. The results contribute to the growing literature on the relation between children and animals and serve to encourage and validate the efforts of humane educators to improve children's caring and kindness toward companion and noncompanion animals.     

The relationship between micronuclei in human lymphocytes and selected micronutrients in vegetarians and non-vegetarians

A vegetarian diet results in higher intake of vitamins and micronutrients, which - although providing antioxidant defence - may lead to deficiency in other micronutrients involved in DNA metabolism and stability (such as vitamins belonging to the B group). The principal difference among various vegetarian diets is the extent to which animal products are avoided. We have performed a pilot study to determine the relationship between the micronucleus frequency in lymphocytes and diet, and we compared the levels of Vitamins C and E, beta-carotene, B(12), folic acid, homocysteine and total antioxidant capacity in healthy vegetarians and non-vegetarians. The vegetarian group, consisting of 24 volunteers (13 women and 11 men), were matched for age and sex with 24 volunteers (12 women and 12 men) with a traditional dietary habit. Among the vegetarians were 13 lacto-ovo-vegetarians with average duration of vegetarian diet 10.8 years (ranging from 5 to 26 years) and 11 lacto-vegetarians with average duration of vegetarian diet 8.2 years (ranging from 3 to 15 years). Homocysteine, Vitamins C and E and beta-carotene levels in plasma were assayed by HPLC, and serum folate and Vitamin B(12) were determined with Elecsys Immunoassay tests. The total antioxidant capacity of plasma was estimated by measuring the ferric-reducing activity in a spectrophotometric assay. Micronuclei were measured in cytokinesis-blocked lymphocytes. Vegetarians had significantly higher levels of Vitamin C and beta-carotene (but not Vitamin E) in plasma compared with non-vegetarians (P<0.001). There were no significant differences in serum levels of folic acid and Vitamin B(12) between the monitored groups. Levels of folic acid in vegetarians correlated with length of vegetarianism (r=0.62, P=0.001, N=24). Vegetarians had elevated levels of homocysteine compared with non-vegetarians (P=0.007), as did vegetarian women compared with non-vegetarian women (P=0.031). We did not find any differences in total antioxidant capacity or in micronucleus frequency between the groups. Micronuclei correlated with age (r=0.62, P<0.001, N=48), women having higher frequencies than men. Multifactorial regression analysis showed significant effects of age, sex and total antioxidant capacity on micronucleus frequency (N=48, P<0.001).     

Effects of diet and age on oxidative damage products in healthy subjects

Damage of molecules as a consequence of oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of chronic diseases related to aging. Diet is a key environmental factor affecting the incidence of many chronic diseases. Antioxidant substances in diet enhance the DNA, lipid and protein protection by increasing the scavenging of free radicals. Products of oxidative damage of DNA (DNA strand breaks with oxidized purines or oxidized pyrimidines), lipids (conjugated dienes of fatty acids) and proteins (carbonyls) in relation to nutrition (vegetarian diet vs. non-vegetarian, traditional mixed diet) were measured in young women aged 20-30 years (46 vegetarians, 48 non-vegetarians) vs. older women aged 60-70 years (33 vegetarians, 34 non-vegetarians). In young subjects, no differences in values of oxidative damage as well as plasma values of antioxidative vitamins (C,beta-carotene) were observed between vegetarian and non-vegetarian groups. In older vegetarian group significantly reduced values of DNA breaks with oxidized purines, DNA breaks with oxidized pyrimidines and lipid peroxidation and on the other hand, significantly increased plasma values of vitamin C and beta-carotene were found compared to the respective non-vegetarian group. Significant age dependences of measured parameters (increase in all oxidative damage products and decrease in plasma vitamin concentrations in older women) were noted only in non-vegetarians. Vegetarian values of older women vs. young women were similar or non-significantly changed. The results suggest that increase of oxidative damage in aging may be prevented by vegetarian nutrition.     

Sex differences in the antecedents of animal use attitudes

Abstract

Sex differences in attitudes toward the use of animals have been reported in previous research. This study examines sex differences in the levels of, and the interrelations among, three potential antecedents of attitudes toward animal use: caring value orientation, pet care experience and attachment to pets. Path analysis showed that pet care experience, through attachment to pets, accounted for a significant portion of variance in animal use attitudes in both males and females. Caring value orientation was directly linked to animal use attitudes in females, but in males, caring value orientation affected attachment to pets, which in turn impacted on animal use attitudes. Results are discussed in terms of Gilligan's theory of socialization.     

Human-Directed Empathy and Attitudes Toward Animal Use: A Survey of Spanish Veterinary Students

Veterinary practitioners are thought of as guardians of animal health and wellbeing, and are considered important in the development of policies on animals. Measuring veterinary students’ attitudes toward animals and animal use is needed when assessing the effectiveness of education programs focused on animal welfare and ethics. The present study examined Spanish veterinary students’ attitudes toward different types of animal use, their human-directed empathy, and the relationship between these and various personal variables. The sample comprised 200 students who completed an online questionnaire. Attitudes toward animal use varied significantly, depending on the type of use in question. There was also a relationship between attitudes toward animal use, one component of human-directed empathy, “Empathic Concern,” and a number of personal variables such as gender, career choice, and contact with animal welfare organizations. Concern about the use of animals for research and animal management was lower in students who were in the later years of their studies. Reasons for this and the role of veterinary education are discussed.     

Attitude to Animals and Empathy: Comparing Animal Protection and General Community Samples

ABSTRACT

Although a number of studies have examined a range of demographic and personality variables that may impact upon attitudes towards the treatment of non-human species, little consensus has been reached within the literature. The aim of the current study was to evaluate and assess levels of human-directed empathy and attitudes towards the treatment of animals in two diverse populations, namely the general community (n = 543) and those within the animal protection field (n = 389). Both groups of participants completed the Attitude Towards the Treatment of Animals Scale (AAS) and the Davis Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), a measure of human-directed empathy. Comparisons between the two samples indicated that those within the animal protection community scored more highly on both the animal attitude and human-directed empathy measures. Correlational analyses revealed a positive relation between AAS and IRI scores for both samples, whilst the strength of the correlation was greater for those within the animal protection sample. These findings are discussed.     

The relationship between micronuclei in human lymphocytes and selected micronutrients in vegetarians and non-vegetarians

A vegetarian diet results in higher intake of vitamins and micronutrients, which – although providing antioxidant defence – may lead to deficiency in other micronutrients involved in DNA metabolism and stability (such as vitamins belonging to the B group). The principal difference among various vegetarian diets is the extent to which animal products are avoided. We have performed a pilot study to determine the relationship between the micronucleus frequency in lymphocytes and diet, and we compared the levels of Vitamins C and E, β-carotene, B₁₂, folic acid, homocysteine and total antioxidant capacity in healthy vegetarians and non-vegetarians. The vegetarian group, consisting of 24 volunteers (13 women and 11 men), were matched for age and sex with 24 volunteers (12 women and 12 men) with a traditional dietary habit. Among the vegetarians were 13 lacto-ovo-vegetarians with average duration of vegetarian diet 10.8 years (ranging from 5 to 26 years) and 11 lacto-vegetarians with average duration of vegetarian diet 8.2 years (ranging from 3 to 15 years). Homocysteine, Vitamins C and E and β-carotene levels in plasma were assayed by HPLC, and serum folate and Vitamin B₁₂ were determined with Elecsys Immunoassay tests. The total antioxidant capacity of plasma was estimated by measuring the ferric-reducing activity in a spectrophotometric assay. Micronuclei were measured in cytokinesis-blocked lymphocytes. Vegetarians had significantly higher levels of Vitamin C and β-carotene (but not Vitamin E) in plasma compared with non-vegetarians (P < 0.001). There were no significant differences in serum levels of folic acid and Vitamin B₁₂ between the monitored groups. Levels of folic acid in vegetarians correlated with length of vegetarianism (r = 0.62, P = 0.001, N = 24). Vegetarians had elevated levels of homocysteine compared with non-vegetarians (P = 0.007), as did vegetarian women compared with non-vegetarian women (P = 0.031). We did not find any differences in total antioxidant capacity or in micronucleus frequency between the groups. Micronuclei correlated with age (r = 0.62, P < 0.001, N = 48), women having higher frequencies than men. Multifactorial regression analysis showed significant effects of age, sex and total antioxidant capacity on micronucleus frequency (N = 48, P < 0.001).     

Attitudes toward Animals among German Children and Adolescents

ABSTRACT

This is the first study about attitudes toward animals among German children and adolescents. A sample of 543 pupils (261 boys, 282 girls) aged 11 to 17 (mean age = 13.37 ± 2.01 years) completed a questionnaire based on different established scales, for example, the Animal Attitude Scale (AAS) and the Intermediate Attitude Scale (IAS). Several aspects of attitudes toward animals and various dimensions of human–animal relationships were measured, including gender, age, grade, pet ownership, animal-related activities, meat consumption, and fear of and disgust toward animals. Gender and age were important factors in determining attitudes toward animals: pro-animal attitudes decreased with age and girls showed more positive attitudes compared with boys. Pet ownership and animal-related activities were associated with more positive attitudes toward animals, whilst meat consumption was related to lower pro-animal attitudes. There were no correlations between fear and general attitudes toward animals. The correlations between disgust and attitudes toward animals were weak. We found significant correlations among the different scales and subscales in animal attitudes.     

Postmenopausal Vegetarians' Low Serum Ferritin Level May Reduce the Risk for Metabolic Syndrome

The present study was conducted to compare the serum ferritin status between the postmenopausal vegetarians and non-vegetarians and to identify the relation of serum ferritin with metabolic syndrome (MetS) risk factors in postmenopausal women. The two study groups consisted of postmenopausal vegetarians (n?=?59) who maintained a vegetarian diet for over 20?years and age-matched non-vegetarian controls (n?=?48). Anthropometric measurements, dietary intakes, serum metabolic syndrome-related parameters, and serum ferritin level between the two groups were compared. The vegetarians exhibited significantly lower weight (p?相似文献   

Empathy,home environment,and attitudes toward animals in relation to animal abuse

Abstract

Recent years have seen an increase in interest in the social, behavioral, psychological, and developmental correlates of animal abuse. The current study examined the relationships between empathy, family environment, attitudes toward animals and participation in animal abuse using a self-report methodology among a sample of college students. Within a sample of 286 college students, scores on the Attitudes Toward the Treatment of Animals Scale (ATTAS) were significantly correlated with scores on the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), a measure of empathy. The Caregiving subscale of the ATTAS was found to significantly differentiate abusers from non-abusers, and to differentiate abusers who reported having first engaged in abuse prior to age 13 years from those who reported having first engaged in abuse at age 13 or later. Abusers scored significantly higher on the IRI Fantasy subscale than did non-abusers. Men who reported a history of sexual abuse were more likely to report participating in animal abuse than were those who reported no history of sexual abuse. Finally, the effect of sexual abuse on animal abuse was found to be independent of individual differences in empathy and attitudes toward animals. The potential roles of trauma and fantasy in the genesis of animal abuse are discussed.     

Are Dogs Children,Companions, or Just Animals? Understanding Variations in People's Orientations toward Animals

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the variations in dog owners' attitudes toward, treatment of, and interactions with, animals. Based on 28 in-depth interviews with dog owners from a county in the Midwestern United States, I demonstrate that pets are an important part of many people's lives, often providing companionship, entertainment, and meaningful interactions; however, there are notable, distinct variations in how people relate to them. Pet owners typically exhibit one of three orientations toward pets: “dominionistic,” “humanistic,” or “protectionistic.” The dominionistic have relatively low regard for their pets, valuing them primarily for the uses they provide, such as protection. Those employing the humanistic orientation elevate their pets to the status of surrogate humans and value their pets primarily for the affective benefits they enjoy from their close attachments. The protectionistic have high regard for both pets and animals more generally. They view pets as valuable companions and as creatures with their own interests. This typology offers insights for understanding the source and variety of the often ambiguous and contradictory relations between people and pets. I argue that individual characteristics and experiences impact how people understand and relate to animals, in large part, because they represent exposure to different cultural messages. I suggest that these orientations represent three sets of distinct cultural logics, each with distinct histories and contemporary sources.     

Effect of intestinal microfloras from vegetarians and meat eaters on the genotoxicity of 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline, a carcinogenic heterocyclic amine

Aim of this study was to investigate the impact of intestinal microfloras from vegetarians and non-vegetarians on the DNA-damaging activity of 2-amino-3-methyl-3H-imidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ), a carcinogenic heterocyclic amine that is found in fried meats. Floras from four vegetarians (Seventh Day Adventists) and from four individuals who consumed high amounts of meats were collected and inoculated into germfree F344 rats. The rats were kept on isocaloric diets that either contained animal derived protein and fat (meat consumers group) or proteins and fat of plant origin (vegetarian groups). IQ (90 mg/kg bw) was administered orally, after 4 h the extent of DNA-damage in colon and liver cells was determined in single cell gel electrophoresis assays. In all groups, the IQ induced DNA-migration was in the liver substantially higher than in the colon. In animals harbouring floras of vegetarians, the extent of damage was in both organs significantly (69.2% in the liver, P<0.016 and 64.7%, P<0.042 in the colon, respectively) lower than in the meat consumer groups. Our findings show that diet related differences in the microfloras have a strong impact on the genotoxic effects of IQ and suggest that heterocyclic amines are less genotoxic and carcinogenic in individuals that consume mainly plant derived foods.     

Oxidant stress, anti-oxidants and essential fatty acids in South Indian vegetarians and non-vegetarians

Vegetarians are known to have a low incidence of cardiovascular diseases and lower blood pressure compared to non-vegetarians. The exact cause for this is not known. In the present study, it was found that, in general, vegetarians (female > males) have a higher concentrations of anti-oxidant enzymes: catalase and superoxide dismutase in their RBC membranes and lower levels of plasma lipid peroxides compared to non-vegetarians. Both male and female non-vegetarians were found to have a higher n-3/n-6 ratio compared to vegetarians. These results suggest that vegetarians have a higher anti-oxidant status and low levels of n-3 fatty acids. It remains to be seen whether this alterations in the oxidant and anti-oxidant status and n-3 concentrations explains the lower incidence of cardiovascular diseases and lower blood pressure in vegetarians.     

Animal Humanness,Animal Use,and Intention to Become Ethical Vegetarian or Ethical Vegan

The present study used relational and predictive approaches to build on past literature examining humanlike animal attributes. From the relational approach, it examined how five humanlike attributes ascribed to animals (Attributes Questionnaire) relate to one another and to attitudes toward 21 uses of animals (Attitudes Toward the Use of Animals Scale). From the predictive approach, it examined the predictive power of human affection toward animals and human perception of animal minds for granting animals moral consideration; additionally, it analyzed the predictive power of humanlike animal attributes for willingness to become an ethical vegetarian or ethical vegan. These analyses focused specifically on gender differences. The author used SPSS and SmartPLS 3.0, a Partial Least Square tool, for statistical analyses. Results from 481 Spanish university students responding to online and pencil-and-paper questionnaires revealed overall moderate correlations between different humanlike attributes and low correlations between those attributes and animal uses. Affection toward animals and perception of animal minds were good predictors for moral consideration of animals, especially when all four attributes were aggregated in the model (R² = 0.47; Q² = 0.32). Humanlike animal attributes directly affected students’ intentions to become vegetarian and vegan but the explanatory power was weak in both cases (R² < 0.19; Q² < 0.15). The study also revealed significant gender differences. Among women, humanlike animal attributes were more closely interrelated, better correlated with a greater number of animal uses, and stronger drivers of the moral status of animals. However, data showed no significant gender differences for path strength of humanlike animal attributes on the willingness to become vegetarian or vegan. In sum, perceiving humanlike attributes in animals has ethical consequences, but its influence on the adoption of pro-animal attitudes and behavior are still unclear. More research is needed to explore and explain causal relationships between the aforementioned variables and to uncover how gender differences may affect them.     

Primates Face to Face: Conservation Implications of Human–Nonhuman Primate Interconnections Edited by Agustín Fuentes and Linda D. Wolfe

ABSTRACT

Sterilization of companion animals is in most cases an expression of the caretaker's will. However, little is known about caretakers' attitudes toward pet sterilization in general—these can influence their decision to sterilize their own animals. Three hundred and twelve Romanian caretakers of non-sterilized companion animals (194 women and 118 men) were surveyed before the implementation of a pet management program in Transylvania, the North-Western part of Romania. The caretakers were administered a questionnaire that gathered demographic data and measured their general attitude toward pet sterilization and their attitude toward the sterilization of their own pet (male or female). Questionnaires were filled in by caretakers of 202 dogs and 110 cats. Romanian pet owners showed an overall level of slight disagreement toward the sterilization of companion animals. Gender-biased attitudes of the Romanian caretakers toward the sterilization of their own pets emerged only when the sex of the animals was taken into consideration, regardless of the type of pet. Romanian men disagreed with neutering male pets while Romanian women were more likely to agree with neutering male pets. No gender difference was detected regarding the spaying of female pets, with both genders showing a slight level of disagreement. The results are discussed from sociological, anthropological, and evolutionary perspectives.     

Effect of Vegetarianism and Smoking on Vitamin B12, Thiocyanate,and Folate Levels in the Blood of Normal Subjects

Vitamin B₁₂, thiocyanate, and folate levels in the blood were estimated in 69 apparently normal subjects, of whom 26 were non-vegetarian non-smokers, 19 non-vegetarian smokers, 15 vegetarian non-smokers, and nine vegetarian smokers. The serum total (cyanide-extracted) B₁₂ level (value A) ranged from 105 to 728 pg/ml, with a mean of 292 pg/ml. The highest values were found in non-vegetarian non-smokers and the lowest in vegetarian smokers. There was no significant difference in value A between smokers as a group and non-smokers as a group. On the other hand, in vegetarians value A was very significantly lower than in non-vegetarians regardless of their smoking habits.It is suggested that A may represent both the protein-bound and free forms of vitamin B₁₂ in the blood, and B mainly the free B₁₂, which may be the physiologically active form. The plasma thiocyanate level varied from 1·0 to 15 μmol/100 ml, being, as expected, much higher in smokers (mean 8·20 μmol/100 ml) than in non-smokers (mean 2·02 μmol/100 ml). There was a rough correlation between falling B₁₂ levels and rising thiocyanate levels. The serum folate level ranged from 2·75 to 15·75 ng/ml, and was slightly but significantly higher in vegetarians (mean 6·60 ng/ml) than in non-vegetarians (mean 4·79 ng/ml), reflecting the greater content of folate in a vegetarian diet.