赤足木蜂的形态和筑巢行为

【目的】研究绒木蜂亚属赤足木蜂Xylocopa rufipes Smith的形态特征和筑巢行为,为进一步保护和管理木蜂资源提供理论依据。【方法】采用网捕法采集赤足木蜂成虫;采用目测、拍照等方法记录赤足木蜂在不同地区的筑巢场所和筑巢基质;用游标卡尺测量赤足木蜂的形态指标和巢室结构指标;采用破坏巢室法和野外巢口观察法测定赤足木蜂的巢内行为。【结果】赤足木蜂雌雄形态区别明显。雌蜂后足胫节胫基板的二叉状分支是其所属的绒木蜂亚属区别其他木蜂的主要特征。赤足木蜂筑巢场所为旧房屋的木桁梁、临时木棚架的木梁或柴火堆,筑巢基质主要为干枯的杉木、泡桐和杨木等。巢建筑有不分枝型和分枝型两种类型,分别占26.09%和73.91%。巢口近圆形,从巢口向内挖掘的主隧道相对于木材纹理呈现一定弧度的夹角(锐角);每巢有1~10个分支隧道,每个分支隧道内巢室数为1~8个,平均3.63±2.08个。巢室长度为10.66±21.98 mm,平均为15.37±0.22 mm;巢室直径为9.79±14.40 mm,平均为12.33±1.08 mm;巢室隔板厚度为1.87±8.31 mm,平均为5.09±0.13 mm。解剖巢室法观察到每个巢内居住着0~6头繁殖后代的雌蜂(n=13巢),平均2.08±1.61头。观察雌蜂进出巢口的数量,发现每个巢室内居住有1~5头繁殖雌蜂(n=23巢),平均2.48±1.24头。【结论】同一种群的赤足木蜂具有独栖性到社会性生活的社会多态性。     

管氏肿腿蜂的交配行为

【目的】半社会性体外寄生蜂管氏肿腿蜂Sclerodermus guani Xiao et Wu喜寄生于一些隐匿独栖(树干或木材)的钻蛀性昆虫,雌、雄个体高效地搜索配偶及交配策略是其种群定殖和扩散的关键。本研究记录了管氏肿腿蜂成虫交配行为的过程,分析、总结了其交配行为的特点。【方法】联合使用体视解剖镜、摄像机和昆虫行为跟踪仪3种仪器,在室内环境条件下系统观察了管氏肿腿蜂(雌雄比为1∶1)的交配行为,对比分析雌雄蜂在整个交配过程中的行为表现、时间分配和速度变化等特点。【结果】管氏肿腿蜂的交配过程可分为交配前、交配中和交配后3个阶段,包括触角拍击、骑上雌蜂、游走、探测和交配一系列步骤。交配前,雄蜂在培养皿内快速游走,用触角接触和拍击雌蜂,用口器接触雌蜂;骑上雌蜂后,雄蜂在雌蜂体表游走,并仍以触角拍击和口器接触雌蜂,而雌蜂则头朝下保持静止状态;雌雄蜂交配前约历时653.617±54.160 s(平均值±SE)。交配中,雄蜂的生殖器与雌蜂结合进行交配,雄蜂前足基部呈45°搭在雌蜂腹部前端,中足和后足抱住雌蜂腹部末端,交配平均历时43.567±7.120 s。交配后,雄蜂离开示意交配结束,雌蜂仍保持静息状态(长达约172 s)。此外,雌雄蜂均行多次交配,且随交配次数增加,交配历时先增加后逐渐减少。雌、雄蜂交配行为表现为先减速后加速,在交配前、交配中和交配后雌、雄蜂行为活动的平均速度分别为3.111,0.595和1.016 cm/s及2.754,0.895和1.314 cm/s。【结论】管氏肿腿蜂雄蜂在交配过程中较活跃,暗示其在配偶搜索、识别和选择中处于主导地位。研究结果可为该蜂室内扩繁、野外释放及复壮等生物防治技术提供理论依据。     

蜜蜂的蜂粮

膜翅目2万多种花粉蜂多数有酿贮蜂粮的习性。蜂粮也称蜂面包、蜂巢花粉。雌蜂筑好巢室后,一次性备足幼虫生长所需的蜂粮,然后在蜂粮上产卵并封闭巢室,孵化出的幼虫完全依赖蜂粮为食完成发育。蜂粮的酿制与贮存对蜂群生存和繁衍具有重要意义。简述了蜂粮的定义、制作过程、酿贮过程和营养功效,对进一步认识蜂粮和开发蜂粮资源均有重要意义。     

非社会性植食昆虫的同种相残行为及其机理

同种相残是指动物杀死并取食同种其他个体的行为,一般被认为是种群密度自我调节的一种方式,常常是影响种群动态和群落结构的重要因素,具有重要的生态学和进化生物学意义。本文从以下几个方面综述了非社会性植食昆虫的同种相残行为及其机理的研究进展：影响同种相残行为发生的因素,同种相残的获利与代价,同种相残与亲子识别及护幼行为的关系,同种相残的进化驱动力等。对植食性昆虫同种相残行为的研究不但具有重要的理论意义,同时,如果我们对同种相残行为发生的生态学、生理学和遗传学机理进行深入研究,或许有助于我们利用相关机理实现植食性昆虫田间种群数量的自我调控,这将对害虫的综合治理产生重要的影响。     

长木蜂的筑巢和采粉贮粮行为

【目的】通过研究长木蜂Xylocopa tranquebarorum筑巢和贮粮行为, 为进一步查明独栖性蜂类行为特点、开发新的蜂类资源提供依据。【方法】采用目测和拍照等方法对长木蜂的整个筑巢过程进行了连续观察, 用游标卡尺对巢口大小进行测量, 采用室内解剖巢室对长木蜂贮蜂粮的大小和数量进行观测。【结果】长木蜂主要在竹子上筑巢, 偶尔也发现在芦苇上筑巢。最喜欢选择竹节直径1.2～2.5 cm的孝顺竹Bambusa multiplex和刚竹属 Phyllostachys的竹种上筑巢。其筑巢过程为：雌蜂寻找合适的筑巢地点, 咬巢口, 清理巢室, 采集花粉蜜制作蜂粮, 在蜂粮上产卵, 制作巢室隔板。筑巢地点主要位于离旧巢1 m以内的位置。雌蜂啃咬巢口平均用时（292±29）min, 制作一块蜂粮需采集粉蜜22～40次, 采集粉蜜平均用时（17.31±0.52）min/次, 携粉蜜回巢滞留时间平均为（16.45±1.08）min/次;巢中卸落粉蜜平均用时为（15.29±1.03）min/次, 一生贮蜂粮平均6块左右;蜂粮近长方形, 长12～18 mm, 宽6～10 mm, 平均重量（0.7140±0.0269）g。【结论】长木蜂雌蜂不同个体之间筑巢行为相似, 而采集粉蜜的次数和贮蜂粮所用时间均有显著差异。     

沙漠石蜂的筑巢习性和行为

2004-2005年在西鄂尔多斯地区,选择巢室数＞300的沙漠石蜂Megachile(Chalicodoma)desertorum Morawitz巢区,通过标记巢室和雌蜂,在整个成蜂活动期连续对沙漠石蜂的筑巢习性和行为进行了观测研究.结果显示:该蜂一生一般能建8～12个巢室,优先利用未被破坏的旧巢.利用旧巢的过程为:...     

中国榕小蜂触角感受器形态特征及进化适应性分析

【目的】榕树与传粉榕小蜂体系是协同进化、专性传粉的经典系统,每种榕树上一般还生活有种类丰富、数目众多的非传粉榕小蜂。在选择压力下,榕小蜂为在榕果内生存产生了明显的适应性形态。触角感受器是昆虫通讯系统的单元,其形态是反映生态和进化适应性的最佳特征之一。本文旨在对中国部分传粉和非传粉榕小蜂的触角感受器的形态多样性和进化适应性进行系统研究。【方法】对来源于海南和云南15种榕树上24种榕小蜂54个型的触角感受器形态进行了扫描电镜观察,基于现有的分子系统发育树,对传粉榕小蜂触角感受器的形态特征进行了性状演化分析,并对榕小蜂的形态特征进行了进化适应性分析。【结果】榕小蜂触角感受器普遍存在雌雄二型现象。雌蜂触角感受器种类有毛状、锥状、板状、刺状、钟形、腔锥状和栓锥状等,数目丰富,并且进果产卵的传粉雌蜂和果外产卵的非传粉雌蜂之间、进果产卵的传粉雌蜂和进果产卵的非传粉雌蜂之间在形态上存在差异。传粉雄蜂和不具有雄性多型现象的非传粉雄蜂触角感受器极为退化,具有雄性多型的非传粉雄蜂触角感受器形态在种内不具有显著差异。性状演化分析表明进化路径相当复杂,可能存在多次独立进化过程。触角感受器的形态类型与其进化适应性相关。【结论】榕小蜂触角感受器类型多样,形态变化丰富,并为适应榕果内的生存而产生了进化适应性特点。雌蜂和雄蜂在榕果内受到了完全不同的选择压力,行使不同的生态功能,从而产生了不同的适应性形态。不同的适应性形态可能与雌蜂不同的产卵行为、雄蜂不同的交配策略具有一定联系。该文是首次对中国榕小蜂触角感受器形态进行系统研究的报道,有助于更好地理解榕小蜂的形态特征、进化路线、行为策略和生态关系。     

褐带卷蛾茧蜂羽化、交配及产卵行为观察

褐带卷蛾茧蜂Bracon adoxophyesi Minamikawa是椰子木蛾幼虫一种重要的天敌寄生蜂。在温度28℃±1℃、湿度50%±5%、光周期12L∶12D的试验条件下,对褐带卷蛾茧蜂的羽化节律、交配、产卵行为进行观察。结果表明,褐带卷蛾茧蜂主要集中在白天(6∶00-18∶00)羽化,占全天羽化总数的82.98%,羽化高峰出现在10∶00-12∶00,占全天羽化总数的23.98%;羽化过程历时较短,仅8-30 min。褐带卷蛾茧蜂交配过程大致分为准备、交配、结束这3个阶段。褐带卷蛾茧蜂雌雄蜂一生均可进行多次交配,雌蜂在交配后即可产卵。产卵过程大致分为寄主定位、寄主检查和接受、取食或产卵、结束与梳理。未交配的雌蜂也可产卵,其子代均为雄蜂。研究结果为褐带卷蛾茧蜂规模化繁育和林间应用提供理论依据。     

木蜂属分类学研究概况

木蜂隶属于膜翅目蜜蜂总科蜜蜂科木蜂亚科木蜂族的木蜂属。其个体较大且粗壮,种类多,世界分布广泛,我国种类丰富。该物种在形态、外貌和采食行为上都与木蜂亚科的其他种类有较大差别。简述了木蜂属的分类学和系统发育学研究进展,为进一步研究、保护和利用木蜂资源奠定基础。     

粉蝶盘绒茧蜂中国和荷兰种群学习行为及EAG反应的比较

昆虫的取食危害可导致植物释放的挥发物发生质和量的变化,天敌利用植物在受到植食性昆虫的危害后释放的挥发性物质来寻找寄主,这种植物挥发物在寄生蜂寻找寄主过程中扮演者重要的角色。粉蝶盘绒茧蜂(Cotesia glomerata)是菜粉蝶(pieris rapae)主要的内寄生蜂,是优良的蜂种,在生物防治上具有广阔的应用前景。分别以中国种群和荷兰种群的粉蝶盘绒茧蜂为研究对象,利用Y型嗅觉仪和触角电位(Electroantennogram,EAG)技术,比较了不同地理种群粉蝶盘绒茧蜂雌蜂的学习行为和触角电生理反应差异。旨在明确虫害植株释放的挥发物在两个地理种群中的作用。Y型嗅觉仪试验结果表明,雌蜂不同的学习经历会影响其对寄主植株的趋性行为。没有学习经历的中国种群雌蜂对虫害甘蓝挥发物较虫害紫甘蓝和虫害羽衣甘蓝挥发物表现出更强地趋性行为,无学习经历荷兰种群对虫害甘蓝挥发物同样表现出更强地趋性行为,中国种群3次间隔产卵和3次间隔气味学习使其对经历过的寄主植物挥发物趋性明显提高。荷兰种群3次间隔气味学习也会提高该蜂对经历寄主挥发物的趋性。EAG试验结果显示,两个地理种群雌蜂对所测定三类挥发物(体积比10-1)的反应强弱依次为:C6化合物>脂肪族化合物>萜类化合物;且在所测定的6种化合物剂量范围内,两个地理种群雌蜂均与trans-2--己醛和乙酸己酯(体积比10-4—10-1),壬醛、月桂烯和里那醇(体积比10-4—10-2)化合物的活性成正相关。结果表明,中国和荷兰种群雌蜂均表现出较为一致的学习能力和电生理反应。研究显示粉蝶盘绒茧蜂雌蜂可能利用甘蓝挥发物作为利它素而寻觅适宜的寄主,学习经历会明显提高该蜂对经历的寄主挥发物的趋性的行为。实验结果为菜粉蝶的生物防治提供理论基础。     

Comparison of social and solitary nesting carpenter bees in sympatry reveals no advantage to social nesting

Facultatively social bees allow for comparisons of social and solitary behaviour under similar environmental conditions. When such bees are polymorphic within the same population it provides a special and somewhat unusual opportunity to examine factors leading to cooperative (social) behaviours where many parameters such as environment are not variable. Some species of bees in the genus Xylocopa offers such opportunities. Studies of these bees often point to guarding and resource limitation as factors leading to social nesting. The large carpenter bee Xylocopa virginica L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) is one species that exhibits both solitary and social nesting behaviour within the same populations. This paper first compares social and solitary nests in an Ontario population of X. virginica to determine if there is a reproductive advantage to social nesting. Following this, a series of possible explanations for social nesting, and the roles of females in social nests are examined. Social nests have similar brood sizes to solitary nests and productivity as a function of colony size is reduced with increasing number of foundresses. Additional foundresses are not effective guards, do not prevent parasitism, do not likely perform significant work, and do not assume foraging with the loss of a primary foundress. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 113 , 998–1010.     

Colony Social Organisation and Alternative Social Strategies in the Eastern Carpenter Bee, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xylocopa virginica</Emphasis>

The eastern carpenter bee, Xylocopa virginica, can nest either solitarily or in groups. In southern Ontario, Canada, near the northern edge of the range, most nests are social, containing groups of two to five adult females. Although social nests were much more frequent than solitary ones, they produced no more brood, so per capita brood productivity was actually lower for social females. Social females exhibited several reproductive strategies inferred from wing wear patterns, which reflect flight activity, and mandibular wear patterns, which reflect nest construction activity. Primary females accumulated a large degree of wing and mandibular wear and were presumed to be the primary reproductives in social nests. Secondary females accumulated less wing and mandibular wear and were probably subordinates awaiting opportunities to supersede primaries as dominant foragers and egg-layers. Tertiary females remained inactive, apparently deferring reproduction to the subsequent year. Social nesting, serial replacement of dominant females in social nests, and deferred reproduction are probably responses to severe competition for nests and nesting substrate.     

Solitary and group nesting in the orchid bee <Emphasis Type="Italic">Euglossa hyacinthina</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera,Apidae)

Summary Orchid bees (Euglossini) provide a potentially informative contrast for examining origins of advanced social behaviour in bees because they are the only tribe in the apine clade that do not form large colonies or have queens and workers. We investigated natural nests of Euglossa hyacinthina Dressler, an orchid bee that nests singly or in groups. By comparing the two types of nests, we examined if individuals in a group merely share the nest (are communal) or exhibit a level of social organization where there is reproductive division of labour among the females. Observations are consistent with communal nesting, indicating that all females in group nests are reproductively similar to the solitary nesting females because the provisioning of young, as well as the ovary development and mating status of females sharing nests were not different than that of solitary-nesting females. Also, multiple female nests did not produce a female-biased brood as predicted for nests with reproductive division of labour. We also investigated potential advantages of group nesting vs. individual nesting. We demonstrate that per capita offspring production is lower in nests with more than one female. However, we found that nests with single females were left unattended for longer periods of time during foraging, and that there was a high incidence of natural enemy attack in nests when females were absent. Group and solitary nesting may be advantageous under different conditions.Received 3 December 2002; revised 7 March 2003; accepted 2 April 2003.     

An ecological analysis of mating biology of Xylocopa virginica in southern Ontario

1. Xylocopa virginica virginica Linnaeus is a wide‐ranging species with plastic nesting behaviour that appears to represent an intermediary between solitary and social nesting species. Over 3 years, a natural population was studied with the objective of quantifying the relationship among population dynamics, climate, female nest provisioning behaviour, and male mating strategy. 2. Males in the population congregated around female‐occupied nesting sites before the beginning of nest provisioning by females; both resident and satellite male mating strategies were observed. Overall, the present results are consistent with female defence polygyny. 3. Male mating strategies were consistent across the three breeding seasons of our study, in spite of annual variation in population size, sex ratio, and weather. Male mating behaviour was also consistent with that seen in other populations with longer breeding seasons. 4. Adult non‐breeding females that never leave nests are observed in nests throughout the breeding season and we hypothesise that males continue to defend territories after breeding females have mated because of a small probability they can mate with one of these non‐breeding females. 5. These results are important to our understanding of the relationship between mating systems and the evolution of sociality, contributing data on the role of ecological factors to male mating behaviour. Collection of such data for a variety of species that differ in sociality is necessary for the comparative analysis that is required to fully elucidate coevolution of mating systems and sociality.     

Fitness consequences of ecological constraints and implications for the evolution of sociality in an incipiently social bee

Ecological constraints such as resource limitation, unfavourable weather conditions, and parasite pressure have long been considered some of the most important selective pressures for the evolution of sociality. In the present study, we assess the fitness consequences of these three ecological factors on reproductive success of solitary nests and social colonies in the socially polymorphic small carpenter bee, Ceratina australensis, based on 982 nests collected over four reproductive periods. Nest site limitation was predicted to decrease opportunities for independent nest initiation and increase the frequency of social nesting. Nest sites were not limiting in this species and the frequency of social nesting was consistent across the four brood‐rearing periods studied. Unfavourable weather was predicted to lower the frequency of female dispersal from their natal nests and to limit the brood‐rearing season; this would increase the frequency and fitness of social colonies. Daily temperature and precipitation accumulation varied between seasons but were not correlated with reproductive success in this bee. Increased parasite pressure is predicted to increase the frequency and fitness of social colonies because solitary bees must leave the nest unattended during foraging bouts and are less able to defend the nest against parasites. Severe parasitism by a chalcid wasp (Eurytoma sp.) resulted in low reproductive success and total nest failure in solitary nests. Social colonies had higher reproductive success and were never extirpated by parasites. The high frequency of solitary nests suggests that this is the optimal strategy. However, social colonies have a selective advantage over solitary nesting females during periods of extreme parasite pressure, and we suggest that social nesting represents a form of bet‐hedging against unpredictable fluctuations in parasite number. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 103 , 57–67.     

Relationships between Nest Architecture and Behavior in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xylocopa virginica</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

The large carpenter bees nest in reeds, stems and wood. Many other Hymenoptera, including many wasps and some bees, have strong associations between the physical elements of their nests and behavior. Nests of the North American carpenter bee, Xylocopa virginica, were collected in southern Ontario. Nest architecture elements were examined with respect to their impact on life-history elements. In particular, it was determined that the brood cells are provisioned sequentially both within and among branches. There was also no detectable pattern of sex allocation in broods. Nests with branched architecture contained more foundresses, but these foundresses did not appear to contribute in the construction of larger nests. These findings are discussed with respect to other bees, and to the social structure of Xylocopa virginica.     

When to bee social: interactions among environmental constraints, incentives, guarding, and relatedness in a facultatively social carpenter bee

In the facultatively social carpenter bee, Xylocopa pubescens,foundresses usually establish nests solitarily. However, nestsmay become social if a second foundress (referred to as alpha)successfully usurps the nest, with the original foundress (referredto as beta) remaining as a guard. Reproductive skew theory predictsthat beta foundresses should remain as helpers only if alphausurpers allow them a share of reproduction. Because alpha femalesdestroy much of beta's brood and beta females do not lay eggsafter takeovers, studies have concluded that usurpers offerno staying incentives or concessions in return for helping behavior.This conclusion is paradoxical, and we suggest that by refrainingfrom destroying all of beta's brood, alpha females do indeedoffer concessions to beta females. We constructed a model toexamine the conditions under which social nesting is favoredby both alpha and beta females. Female preference for socialversus solitary nesting is proportional to expected fitnessin either setting and is affected by current environmental conditions,the value of guarding behavior in protecting brood from pollenrobbery, the size of the concession offered by alpha, and thedegree of genetic relatedness between the foundresses. Our modelshows that at a minimum, establishing sociality after unrelatedusurpations always requires a concession, whereas in relatedusurpations, a concession is not always required. Generally,agreement between alpha and beta is difficult because alpharequires a much higher premium in pollen robbery protectionthan beta in order for sociality to be advantageous. Alpha femalesprefer social nesting only under the most severe environmentalconditions because usually they gain less by the presence ofa guard than by replacing beta brood with their own. In contrast,beta females always strongly prefer social nesting because thechances of successful renesting elsewhere are low and rarelyoutweigh the advantages of guarding their own brood that surviveusurpation. Effects of relatedness between foundresses on preferencefor social nesting are nonintuitive: first, alpha's preferenceincreases with relatedness, whereas beta's preference declines,and second, unrelated beta females prefer sociality more stronglythan related ones. This is because replacement of beta's offspringwith related alpha offspring partially compensates her for theloss of her own brood, even should she leave the nest.     

Colony Member Discrimination by Juvenile Columbian Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus columbianus)

Whether an individual strives to breed or restrains from reproducing directly but increases the fitness of another individual through its help, may be viewed as a result of a trade-off between fitness costs and benefits arising from this decision. A population of the large carpenter bee Xylocopa sulcatipes Maa was studied in southeast Israel over a two year period. Female reproductive success, in terms of genetic representation in the gene pool (genetic gain), was calculated using coefficients of relatedness and the number of offspring produced by solitary, reproductively dominant and helper bees of social nests. In one year helper females, that shared a nest with a related female accrued a higher genetic gain than did solitary females. In the subsequent year solitary females did better than the helper bees. In nests founded by unrelated females a helper bee accrued only little genetic gain. However, evidence is presented to show that subordinate behaviour can have an adaptive value and can ultimately be beneficial through nest inheritance by the subordinate bee.     

Strong constraints to independent nesting in a facultatively social bee: quantifying the effects of enemies-at-the-nest

Constraints to independent nesting play a key role in the understanding of social evolution in insects, but the source and the magnitude of such constraints are poorly known for many key taxa. In allodapine bees it is known that solitary nesting females have low rates of successful brood rearing and that this drives selection for cooperative nesting. It has been hypothesized that these constraints are due to the presence of enemies-at-the-nest, such as ants, but no direct link has been demonstrated between such enemies and colony failure. We set up an experiment in which solitary founded nests of an Australian allodapine bee, Exoneura nigrescens, were either protected from non-flying predators or left unprotected, and compared the resulting colony survival and brood production rates. We found that protected colonies have much higher rates of survival and that the constraints to independent nesting are extreme, with a mean of less than one offspring per nest at the end of the brood rearing period. This means that cooperative nesting is essential for this species to persist in its habitat. Received 6 July 2007; revised 5 November 2007; accepted 12 November 2007.     

Group nesting and individual variation in behavior and physiology in the orchid bee <Emphasis Type="Italic">Euglossa nigropilosa</Emphasis> Moure (Hymenoptera,Apidae)

The Euglossini are a key group for studying the traits that promote or hinder highly social behavior in bees because it is the only tribe in the Apine clade without large colonies or females with distinct life histories, e.g. queens and workers. There have been few studies on behavior of orchid bee females in nests because these nests are not found easily. Taking advantage of the relatively high abundance of Eg. nigropilosa nests at Reserva Natural La Planada, Colombia, we examined social behavior of Eg. nigropilosa individuals in five nests (3 original and 2 reused) for nine months. We report this species to have the largest colonies known for Euglossa, with nests reaching up to 22 individuals, and all nests containing more than one female bee from the same generation. These nests presented many traits that correspond to communal insect colonies. No generational overlap and no cooperative brood care were detected. We examined natural enemies and resource limitation as important factors for group nesting. We examined parasitoid attacks to cells in a nest with females and one without females. We also searched for nesting locations and examined nest re-use as indicators of nest site limitation. Lastly, we examined behavioral and physiological differences among females in the same nest. Such differences could be the bases for evolution of alternative life histories among group living females. We examined extent of ovary development and oviposition rates in similarly aged females in the same nest. We found large variation in reproductive effort of young females. We also examined differences in resin foraging and cell usurpation behaviors. Behavioral specialization was observed, with some individuals bringing only resin to the nest. Inside the nests, bees had territories in which they constructed and defended cells. This territoriality may be a defense against usurpation of provisioned cells by nest mates. Received 10 December 2007; revised 2 May 2008; accepted 7 May 2008.