Student perspectives of assessment by TEMM model in physiology

Assessment is the process by which the teacher and the student gain knowledge about student progress. Assessment systems should aim at evaluating the desired learning outcomes. In Melaka Manipal Medical College, (Manipal Campus), Manipal, India, the TEMM model (consisting of 4 assessment methods: Triple Jump Test, essay incorporating critical thinking questions, Multistation Integrated Practical Examination, and multiple choice questions) was introduced to 30 refresher students in the fourth block of the academic year. At the end of the block, a questionnaire was distributed to ask the students to rank the different assessments in the order of their preference with respect to seven items. Analysis of the results showed that not a single type of assessment was ranked highest for all the seven items, proving the earlier observation that a single assessment does not fulfill all aspects of assessment and that there is a need for an evaluating system with multiple ways of assessment.     

Teaching cell biology to nonscience majors through forensics, or how to design a killer course

Nonscience majors often do not respond to traditional lecture-only biology courses. However, these students still need exposure to basic biological concepts. To accomplish this goal, forensic science was paired with compatible cell biology subjects. Several topics such as human development and molecular biology were found to fulfill this purpose. Another goal was to maximize the hands-on experience of the nonscience major students. This objective was fulfilled by specific activities such as fingerprinting and DNA typing. One particularly effective teaching tool was a mock murder mystery complete with a Grand Jury trial. Another objective was to improve students' attitudes toward science. This was successful in that students felt more confident in their own scientific abilities after taking the course. In pre/post tests, students answered four questions about their ability to conduct science. All four statements showed a positive shift after the course (p values ranging from.001 to.036, df = 23; n = 24). The emphasis on experiential pedagogy was also shown to increase critical thinking skills. In pre/post testing, students in this course significantly increased their performance on critical thinking assessment tests from 33.3% correct to 45.3% (p =.008, df = 4; n = 24).     

Efficient validation of teaching and learning using multiple-choice exams

One purpose of this study was to quantify, by means of single-format, multiple-choice questions at the beginning and end of the course, the extent to which first-year medical students learn neuroscience material from an introductory course in their curriculum. Compared with their precourse test performance (mean = 41.8%), collectively, the students nearly doubled their grade by the end of the course (mean = 81.4%). Their scores in subcategories of the material improved in inverse proportion to what they knew initially. A second goal was to evaluate a two-dimensional, computer-generated matrix as a way to assess test question validity and value. The evaluation of individual test questions as assessed from the matrix often, but not always, was similar to the classical pedagogical analysis that uses difficulty and discrimination indexes. Strengths of the matrix are its ability to render data as a gestalt, as well as flexibility and intuitive ease of use.     

Creative teaching assistant organization to maintain an Integrative Physiology course with 440 students

We were recently challenged with trying to maintain the integrity and learning experience of our Physiology course, which included the use of long-answer, essay-style test questions, with a class size that increased over 2 yr by approximately 200 students. We reorganized the teaching assistant (TA) support structure in an attempt to keep the testing style and mark (or grade) the exams accurately, in a timely fashion, and provide feedback to the students that want it. Each of four TAs became experts in two sections of the course. To assess our success, TA time allocation for specific duties was recorded. Marking (or grading) accuracy was assessed by recording test data including the number of tests returned for remarking and how much marks changed by when a grade was reassessed. Student feedback was solicited to determine whether this structure provided adequate feedback and support to the students. TAs spent an average of 115 h and 35 min +/- 7 h 21 min of a total of 140 h contracted. On average, 13.2 +/- 0.5% of the tests were identified as being inaccurately graded by 4.2 +/- 0.7%. When asked to score whether the statement of assessment of students was fair, it scored 4.5 out of 5, where 5 equals strongly agree. When asked whether the course provided a worthwhile learning experience, the question scored 4.84 out of 5. Thus, we were successful at marking the exams accurately, in a timely fashion, and providing the necessary feedback, and we were successful at maintaining the objectives of the Physiology course with a class size of 440 students.     

Teaching evolution: challenging religious preconceptions

Teaching college students about the nature of science should not be a controversial exercise. College students are expected to distinguish between astronomy and astrology, chemistry and alchemy, evolution and creationism. In practice, however, the conflict between creationism and the nature of science may create controversy in the classroom, even walkouts, when the subject of evolution is raised. The authors have grappled with the meaning of such behaviors. They surveyed 538 students in a public, liberal arts college. Pre/post course surveys were analyzed to track changes in student responses to questions that were either consistent or inconsistent with the Theory of Evolution after a semester of instruction in a college biology or zoology course in which evolution was taught. Many students who were initially undecided about issues regarding evolution had shifted in their viewpoints by the end of the course. It was found that more education about the evidence for and the mechanics of evolutionary processes did not necessarily move students toward a scientific viewpoint. The authors also discovered a "wedge" effect among students who were undecided about questions pertaining to human ancestry at the beginning of the course. About half of these students shifted to a scientific viewpoint at the end of the course; the other half shifted toward agreement with statements consistent with creationism.     

Mitochondrial quality control in aging and lifespan control of the fungal aging model Podospora anserina

Aging of biological systems is a fundamental process controlled by a complex network of molecular pathways. In the filamentous fungus Podospora anserina, a model in which organismal aging can conveniently be analysed, mitochondria play a central role. A wide range of relevant pathways were identified that contribute to the maintenance of a population of functional mitochondria. These pathways act in a hierarchical manner, but all the pathways are limited in capacity. At the end of the life cycle, when the various surveillance pathways are overwhelmed and damage has passed certain thresholds, programmed cell death brings the life of individual P. anserina to an end.     

The use of a knowledge survey as an indicator of student learning in an introductory biology course

A knowledge survey (KS) is a series of content-based questions sequenced in order of presentation during a course. Students do not answer the questions; rather, they rank their confidence in their ability to answer each question. A 304-question KS was designed and implemented for a multisection, multi-instructor introductory biology course to determine whether this tool could be used to assess student learning. The KS was administered during the first 2 wk and the last 2 wk of the semester online via WebCT. Results were scored using one point for each "not confident" response (level 1), two points for each "possibly confident" response (level 2), and three points for each "confident" response (level 3). We found that scores increased significantly between the pre- and post-KS, indicating that student confidence in their knowledge of the course material increased over the semester. However, the correlation between student confidence and final grades was negligible or low, and chi-square tests show that KS scores and matched exam questions were not significantly related. We conclude that under the conditions implemented in our study, the KS does not reliably measure student learning as measured by final grades or exam questions.     

Decrease of the slow phase velocities of postrotatory nystagmi as a result of the otolith organs stimulation

Intact pigeons were rotated in darkness in a horizontal plane at various orientations relative to axis of rotation, which passed between labyrinths, or was displaced relative to them. Trapezoidal (tests 1) and triangular (tests 2) rotation programs were used. In the tests 1, positive and negative angular accelerations were separated by two-minute periods of rotation with constant angular velocity. Such periods were absent in the tests 2. Results of the canal-otolith interactions in the tests 1 and 2 were different only in postrotatory nystagmi: the peak velocities of the slow phases decreased in both postrotatory nystagmi in the tests 1, but only in one of them in the tests 2. Apparently, at oppositely directed postrotatory nystagmi, decrease of peak velocities in the tests 1 is provided with different mechanisms. At one of them the decrease of nystagmus velocity reflects a result of a summation of canal and otolithic signals on the interneurones of the semicircular canal reflex arches, whereas at another one it is related with long-lasting activity imbalance of these interneurones which is supported by otolithic afferentation during rotation at constant angular velocity.     

细胞生物学教学改革初探

细胞生物学是生命科学专业的一门必修的专业基础课,占有非常重要的地位。鉴于我院细胞生物学课程课时安排少、实验少、与已修课程有重复内容、相关科学前沿知识不能及时更新、"填鸭式"教学模式和传统的以"讲"为主的教学方法等严重影响该课程教学质量的教学现状,提出了从课程结构体系、课程教学内容,教学方法及考核方式等方面的一系列改革探究,课程结构体系方面由专业任选课变更为专业基础课,适当增加了理论课时;从课程内容来看,取缔与已修课程的重复内容,适当补充最新科研动态、介绍相关的诺贝尔奖,积极鼓励学生参与教师的相关科研项目和申报大学生科研创新活动项目,培养学生的科研创新能力;从教学模式来看,教师要积极利用图文并茂的多媒体教学、适时放映学生喜欢看的相关电教视频、课堂上多以讨论和提问的方式教学;考核采用平时成绩加期末成绩的方式,不断提高教学效率和课堂管理水平,促进教学质量的提高。     

An extract from Prospects and Risks of Gene Technology: The Report of the Enquete Commission to the Bundestag of the Federal Republic of Germany

We are pleased to publish an English translation of the crucial section on germ line gene therapy from the Report of the German Enquete Commission. This section of the Report raises basic ethical questions concerning embryo research, as well as more specific questions relating to germ line gene therapy. This form of gene therapy involves genetic modification of the germ cells. Such a modification would be passed on to any descendents of the person whose genes had been altered. The Report had previously dealt with somatic gene therapy, which does not affect the germ line and hence is not passed on to descendents.     

Increasing student involvement in lectures: (very) low tech innovations in a biochemistry lecture class

The inherent passivity of the traditional lecture format makes this a poor mode for learning. In this paper I outline a simple but effective approach for eliciting student participation in the intermediate size lecture course (50–100 students). Two types of question are employed to increase student involvement. Each lecture ends with a set of questions directly related to concepts that will be covered in the next session. At the following lecture, specific students, chosen at random from the class list, are called on to answer these questions. Classroom participation is also elicited by calling on students to answer questions which focus on the major points during each lecture. Finally, students are invited to submit questions for inclusion on each exam. These devices make the lecture a more active and participatory experience.     

Testing the generalized neutrality hypothesis

Various tests of the hypothesis of selective neutrality based on gene frequency are now available. These tests take as null hypothesis the concept of “strict neutrality”: all new mutants are required to be selectively identical to each other. For evolutionary questions, however, (as opposed to those of genetic polymorphism), a wider null hypothesis might be of interest. Since deleterious alleles have essentially no evolutionary importance, one might wish to test the null hypothesis that only neutral or deleterious mutations occur. The principal alternative to this hypothesis is that there exists heterotic selection of some form for some alleles tending to maintain a level of genetic polymorphism higher than that under neutrality. In this paper an assessment is made of the usefulness of a test of strict neutrality first proposed by this author (Ewens, 1972) as a test of null hypothesis of “generalized neutrality,” i.e. that only neutral or deleterious alleles occur. At the same time some remarks will be made about estimation of the fundamental parameter θ defining these processes.     

A Murine Closed-chest Model of Myocardial Ischemia and Reperfusion

Surgical trauma by thoracotomy in open-chest models of coronary ligation induces an immune response which modifies different mechanisms involved in ischemia and reperfusion. Immune response includes cytokine expression and release or secretion of endogenous ligands of innate immune receptors. Activation of innate immunity can potentially modulate infarct size. We have modified an existing murine closed-chest model using hanging weights which could be useful for studying myocardial pre- and postconditioning and the role of innate immunity in myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. This model allows animals to recover from surgical trauma before onset of myocardial ischemia.Volatile anesthetics have been intensely studied and their preconditioning effect for the ischemic heart is well known. However, this protective effect precludes its use in open chest models of coronary artery ligation. Thus, another advantage could be the use of the well controllable volatile anesthetics for instrumentation in a chronic closed-chest model, since their preconditioning effect lasts up to 72 hours. Chronic heart diseases with intermittent ischemia and multiple hit models are other possible applications of this model.For the chronic closed-chest model, intubated and ventilated mice undergo a lateral blunt thoracotomy via the 4th intercostal space. Following identification of the left anterior descending a ligature is passed underneath the vessel and both suture ends are threaded through an occluder. Then, both suture ends are passed through the chest wall, knotted to form a loop and left in the subcutaneous tissue. After chest closure and recovery for 5 days, mice are anesthetized again, chest skin is reopened and hanging weights are hooked up to the loop under ECG control.At the end of the ischemia/reperfusion protocol, hearts can be stained with TTC for infarct size assessment or undergo perfusion fixation to allow morphometric studies in addition to histology and immunohistochemistry.     

Behavioral specificity of non-genomic glucocorticoid effects in rats: effects on risk assessment in the elevated plus-maze and the open-field

The rapid effects of glucocorticoids on various behaviors suggest that these hormones play a role in rapidly coping with challenging situations. The variety of behaviors affected in different situations raise, however, questions regarding the specificity and roles of glucocorticoids in controlling behavior. To clarify this issue, we assessed the rapid behavioral effects of glucocorticoids in the elevated plus-maze (EPM) and the open-field (OF) tests in male rats. Both tests measure three different kinds of behavioral responses: locomotion, anxiety-like behaviors (central area and open arm exploration in the OF and EPM tests, respectively), and risk assessment (investigating aversive areas in a stretched attend posture). The acute inhibition of glucocorticoid synthesis by metyrapone decreased risk assessment but did not affect locomotion and anxiety-like behaviors. Corticosterone administration increased risk assessment, without affecting locomotion and anxiety-like behaviors. Moreover, plasma corticosterone levels measured immediately after testing strongly correlated with the intensity of risk assessment. The effects of corticosterone were rapid, as occurred even when the hormone was injected 2 min before behavioral testing. In addition, the effect was resistant to protein synthesis inhibition. These data demonstrate that glucocorticoids are able to increase specifically risk assessment behaviors by non-genomic mechanisms in two different, novelty-related, non-social challenging situations. Thus, glucocorticoids appear to rapidly induce specific behavioral adjustments to meet immediate requirements set by the challenge. These data support earlier assumptions on the role of glucocorticoids in coping, and it can be hypothesized that the rapid activation of the HPA-axis may play a role in forming coping responses.     

污染物环境生态效应评价研究进展

总结了污染物环境生态效应评价的关键环节--生态受体选择、反应终点和评价参数确定等研究现状,分析讨论了这些环节目前存在的问题和今后的研究方向.个体和种群层次上的生态受体研究较为深入,相应的反应终点研究也较为成熟,但群落和系统层次上的生态受体研究较少,相应的反应终点还不能完整的表征其结构与功能发生的变化.应用能够完整反映生态系统功能及结构组织状态的反应终点,以生态系统为受体进行污染物环境生态效应评价是今后的研究方向.基于假设检验的NOEC只是一个实验设计浓度,不能构造置信区间;ECx由不同的数学模型计算的结果差异较大,置信区间随效应值x的降低而增大.研究综合假设检验与数学模型各自优点的评价参数估算方法是污染物环境生态效应评价的重要研究内容.     

Assessment of reproductive risks

In the regulatory process, the hazards posed by potentially toxic agents to the female and male reproductive systems and to developing young are evaluated by risk assessment procedures. In this paper, toxicity testing and the regulatory process are discussed, with emphasis on risk assessment. The suggested testing protocols of the Pesticide Assessment Guidelines (U.S. EPA) are presented as an example of testing that might be done to produce toxicity data for an agent. Protocols and end points that are utilized in testing for reproductive effects are described. Included are acute, subchronic, chronic, and short-term tests. The four components of reproductive risk assessment (hazard identification, dose-response assessment, exposure assessment, and risk characterization) are examined. Effects of dibromochloropropane on rabbit testicular parameters are used to demonstrate approaches that could be taken in doing a reproductive risk assessment. Research needs for screening methods, adequate dose-response testing, toxicokinetics, end point development, and extrapolation methods are identified. Finally, this paper discusses selected areas in which changes in reproductive risk assessment are anticipated, as well as the mechanism for influencing the nature and extent of those changes.     

Clinical applications of microarray-based diagnostic tests

Nearly 15 years have passed since the possibility of analyzing nucleic acid analytes in a massively parallel fashion was proposed using the then new concept of microarrays. A decade ago, proof of principle demonstration projects established the use of high density microarrays to genotype multiple polymorphisms within a large gene [cystic fibrosis transmembrance regulator (CFTR)], to rapidly analyze DNA sequences by hybridization and to ascertain differential gene expression of the entire genome of an organism. The use of microarrays has had an explosive influence on the rate at which new biological information can be learned, including in a nonhypothesis driven manner. The past decade has also seen these research tools applied increasingly to questions of clinical and medical relevance. Genotyping drug metabolizing enzyme genes, resequencing important tumor suppressor genes, and classifying neoplastic disease by differential gene expression profiles are but a few of the many possibilities to provide clinically useful information using microarray-based diagnostic tests.     

Use of modified SOAP notes and peer-led small-group discussion in a Medical Physiology course: addressing the hidden curriculum

Peer leading of small-group discussion of cases; use of modified subjective, objective, assessment of physiology (SOAP) notes; and opportunities for self-assessment were introduced into a Medical Physiology course to increase students' awareness and practice of professional behaviors. These changes arose from faculty members' understanding of the hidden curriculum and their efforts to reveal it to take increased advantage of its educationally beneficial aspects. Faculty members and students observed that the requirement for students to submit SOAP notes before their discussions meant that they were well prepared to participate. Student satisfaction with the protocol was high, with >95% of the students agreeing that discussants were well prepared and that the overall performance of their discussion group was good. A comparison of students' performance on selected exam questions showed that peer leading was equally as effective as a previously used teacher-centered approach. Students agreed that their ability to analyze a clinical case had improved using this protocol, an effect that persisted at least one semester after the end of the course. These approaches were time and cost efficient from a faculty perspective while serving the needs of the students. The use of SOAP notes and peer-led discussion were effective forms of instruction, in which students succeeded in learning medical physiology and in practicing professional behaviors.     

Effect on clinical outcome of breast feeding during acute diarrhoea.

The effects of oral rehydration fluid alone and of oral rehydration fluid plus breast feeding on the course and outcome of acute diarrhoea were assessed in two groups of 26 children aged under 2 years. Children who continued to be breast fed during treatment with oral rehydration solutions passed significantly fewer diarrhoeal stools. They also passed, on average, a smaller volume of diarrhoeal stools and recovered from diarrhoea sooner after the start of treatment. Their requirement for oral rehydration fluid was significantly reduced. Breast feeding exerts a beneficial effect on the course and outcome of acute diarrhoea by reducing the number and volume of diarrhoeal stools.     

Evaluating online direct-to-consumer marketing of genetic tests: informed choices or buyers beware?

Commercialization of genetic technologies is expanding the horizons for the marketing and sales of genetic tests direct-to-consumers (DTCs). This study assesses the information provision and access requirements that are in place for genetic tests that are being advertised DTC over the Internet. Sets of key words specific to DTC genetic testing were entered into popular Internet search engines to generate a list of 24 companies engaging in DTC advertising. Company requirements for physician mediation, genetic counseling arrangements, and information provision were coded to develop categories for quantitative analysis within each variable. Results showed that companies offering risk assessment and diagnostic testing were most likely to require that testing be mediated by a clinician, and to recommend physician-arranged counseling. Companies offering enhancement testing were less likely to require physician mediation of services and more likely to provide long-distance genetic counseling. DTC advertisements often provided information on disease etiology; this was most common in the case of multifactorial diseases. The majority of companies cited outside sources to support the validity of claims about clinical utility of the tests being advertised; companies offering risk assessment tests most frequently cited all information sources. DTC advertising for genetic tests that lack independent professional oversight raises troubling questions about appropriate use and interpretation of these tests by consumers and carries implications for the standards of patient care. These implications are discussed in the context of a public healthcare system.