Isolation of hyperactive mutants of the MAPK p38/Hog1 that are independent of MAPK kinase activation

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) play pivotal roles in growth, development, differentiation, and apoptosis. The exact role of a given MAPK in these processes is not fully understood. This question could be addressed using active forms of these enzymes that are independent of external stimulation and upstream regulation. Yet, such molecules are not available. MAPK activation requires dual phosphorylation, on neighboring Tyr and Thr residues, catalyzed by MAPK kinases (MAPKKs). It is not known how to force MAPK activation independent of MAPKK phosphorylation. Here we describe a series of nine hyperactive (catalytically and biologically), MAPKK-independent variants of the MAPK Hog1. Each of the active molecules contains just a single point mutation. Six mutations are in the conserved L16 domain of the protein. The active Hog1 mutants were obtained through a novel genetic screen that could be applied for isolation of active MAPKs of other families. Equivalent mutations, introduced to the human p38alpha, rendered the enzyme active even when produced in Escherichia coli, showing that the mutations increased the intrinsic catalytic activity of p38. It implies that the activating mutations could be directly used for production of active forms of MAPKs from yeasts to humans and could open the way to revealing their biological functions.     

Analysis of mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling specificity in response to hyperosmotic stress: use of an analog-sensitive HOG1 allele

When confronted with a marked increase in external osmolarity, budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) cells utilize a conserved mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascade (the high-osmolarity glycerol or HOG pathway) to elicit cellular responses necessary to permit continued growth. One input that stimulates the HOG pathway requires the integral membrane protein and putative osmosensor Sho1, which recruits and enables activation of the MAPK kinase kinase Ste11. In mutants that lack the downstream MAPK kinase (pbs2Delta) or the MAPK (hog1Delta) of the HOG pathway, Ste11 activated by hyperosmotic stress is able to inappropriately stimulate the pheromone response pathway. This loss of signaling specificity is known as cross talk. To determine whether it is the Hog1 polypeptide per se or its kinase activity that is necessary to prevent cross talk, we constructed a fully functional analog-sensitive allele of HOG1 to permit acute inhibition of this enzyme without other detectable perturbations of the cell. We found that the catalytic activity of Hog1 is required continuously to prevent cross talk between the HOG pathway and both the pheromone response and invasive growth pathways. Moreover, contrary to previous reports, we found that the kinase activity of Hog1 is necessary for its stress-induced nuclear import. Finally, our results demonstrate a role for active Hog1 in maintaining signaling specificity under conditions of persistently high external osmolarity.     

Dynamic control of yeast MAP kinase network by induced association and dissociation between the Ste50 scaffold and the Opy2 membrane anchor

Membrane localization of the Ste11 MAPKKK is essential for activation of both the filamentous growth/invasive growth (FG/IG) MAP kinase (MAPK) pathway and the SHO1 branch of the osmoregulatory HOG MAPK pathway, and is mediated by binding of the Ste50 scaffold protein to the Opy2 membrane anchor. We found that Opy2 has two major (CR-A and CR-B), and one minor (CR-D), binding sites for Ste50. CR-A binds Ste50 constitutively and can transmit signals to both the Hog1 and Fus3/Kss1 MAPKs. CR-B, in contrast, binds Ste50 only when Opy2 is phosphorylated by Yck1/Yck2 under glucose-rich conditions and transmits the signal preferentially to the Hog1 MAPK. Ste50 phosphorylation by activated Hog1/Fus3/Kss1 MAPKs downregulates the HOG MAPK pathway by dissociating Ste50 from Opy2. Furthermore, Ste50 phosphorylation, together with MAPK-specific protein phosphatases, reduces the basal activity of the HOG and the mating MAPK pathways. Thus, dynamic regulation of Ste50-Opy2 interaction fine-tunes the MAPK signaling network.     

Phosphorylation of Tyr-176 of the yeast MAPK Hog1/p38 is not vital for Hog1 biological activity

Mitogen-activated protein kinases are crucial components in the life of eukaryotic cells. The current dogma for MAPK activation is that dual phosphorylation of neighboring Thr and Tyr residues at the phosphorylation lip is an absolute requirement for their catalytic and biological activity. In this study we addressed the role of Tyr and Thr phosphorylation in the yeast MAPK Hog1/p38. Taking advantage of the recently isolated hyperactive mutants, whose intrinsic basal activity is independent of upstream regulation, we demonstrate that Tyr-176 is not required for basal catalytic and biological activity but is essential for the salt-induced amplification of Hog1 catalysis. We show that intact Thr-174 is absolutely essential for biology and catalysis of the mutants but is mainly required for structural reasons and not as a phosphoacceptor. The roles of Thr-174 and Tyr-176 in wild type Hog1 molecules were also tested. Unexpectedly we found that Hog1(Y176F) is biologically active, capable of induction of Hog1 target genes and of rescuing hog1Delta cells from osmotic stress. Hog1(Y176F) was not able, however, to mediate growth arrest induced by constitutively active MAPK kinase/Pbs2. We propose that Thr-174 is essential for stabilizing the basal active conformation, whereas Tyr-176 is not. Tyr-176 serves as a regulatory element required for stimuli-induced amplification of kinase activity.     

Glycosylation defects activate filamentous growth Kss1 MAPK and inhibit osmoregulatory Hog1 MAPK

The yeast filamentous growth (FG) MAP kinase (MAPK) pathway is activated under poor nutritional conditions. We found that the FG‐specific Kss1 MAPK is activated by a combination of an O‐glycosylation defect caused by disruption of the gene encoding the protein O‐mannosyltransferase Pmt4, and an N‐glycosylation defect induced by tunicamycin. The O‐glycosylated membrane proteins Msb2 and Opy2 are both essential for activating the FG MAPK pathway, but only defective glycosylation of Msb2 activates the FG MAPK pathway. Although the osmoregulatory HOG (high osmolarity glycerol) MAPK pathway and the FG MAPK pathway share almost the entire upstream signalling machinery, osmostress activates only the HOG‐specific Hog1 MAPK. Conversely, we now show that glycosylation defects activate only Kss1, while activated Kss1 and the Ptp2 tyrosine phosphatase inhibit Hog1. In the absence of Kss1 or Ptp2, however, glycosylation defects activate Hog1. When Hog1 is activated by glycosylation defects in ptp2 mutant, Kss1 activation is suppressed by Hog1. Thus, the reciprocal inhibitory loop between Kss1 and Hog1 allows only one or the other of these MAPKs to be stably activated under various stress conditions.     

Group III histidine kinase is a positive regulator of Hog1-type mitogen-activated protein kinase in filamentous fungi

We previously reported that the group III histidine kinase Dic1p in the maize pathogen Cochliobolus heterostrophus is involved in resistance to dicarboximide and phenylpyrrole fungicides and in osmotic adaptation. In addition, exposure to the phenylpyrrole fungicide fludioxonil led to improper activation of Hog1-type mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in some phytopathogenic fungi, including C. heterostrophus. Here we report, for the first time, the relationship between the group III histidine kinase and Hog1-related MAPK: group III histidine kinase is a positive regulator of Hog1-related MAPK in filamentous fungi. The phosphorylation pattern of C. heterostrophus BmHog1p (Hog1-type MAPK) was analyzed in wild-type and dic1-deficient strains by Western blotting. In the wild-type strain, phosphorylated BmHog1p was detected after exposure to both iprodione and fludioxonil at a concentration of 1 microg/ml. In the dic1-deficient strains, phosphorylated BmHog1p was not detected after exposure to 10 microg/ml of the fungicides. In response to osmotic stress (0.4 M KCl), a trace of phosphorylated BmHog1p was found in the dic1-deficient strains, whereas the band representing active BmHog1p was clearly detected in the wild-type strain. Similar results were obtained for Neurospora crassa Os-2p MAPK phosphorylation in the mutant of the group III histidine kinase gene os-1. These results indicate that group III histidine kinase positively regulates the activation of Hog1-type MAPKs in filamentous fungi. Notably, the Hog1-type MAPKs were activated at high fungicide (100 microg/ml) and osmotic stress (0.8 M KCl) levels in the histidine kinase mutants of both fungi, suggesting that another signaling pathway activates Hog1-type MAPKs in these conditions.     

Distinct and combined roles of the MAP kinases of Cochliobolus heterostrophus in virulence and stress responses

Pathogenicity mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), related to yeast FUS3/KSS1, are essential for virulence in fungi, including Cochliobolus heterostrophus, a necrotrophic pathogen causing Southern corn leaf blight. We compared the phenotypes of mutants in three MAPK genes: HOG1, MPS1, and CHK1. The chk1 and mps1 mutants show autolytic appearance, light pigmentation, and dramatic reduction in virulence and conidiation. Similarity of mps1 and chk1 mutants is reflected by coregulation by these two MAPKs of several genes. Unlike chk1, mps1 mutants are female-fertile and form normal-looking appressoria. HOG1 mediates resistance to hyperosmotic and, to a lesser extent, oxidative stress, and is required for stress upregulation of glycerol-3-phosphate phosphatase, transaldolase, and a monosaccharide transporter. Hog1, but not Mps1 or Chk1, was rapidly phosphorylated in response to increased osmolarity. The hog1 mutants have smaller appressoria and cause decreased disease symptoms on maize leaves. Surprisingly, loss of MPS1 in a wild-type or hog1 background improved resistance to some stresses. All three MAPKs contribute to the regulation of central developmental functions under normal and stress conditions, and full virulence cannot be achieved without appropriate input from all three pathways.     

酿酒酵母促分裂原蛋白激酶Hog1p 介导的渗透胁迫反应调控机制

 高渗透性甘油促分裂原激酶信号转导途径（high osmolarity glycerol mitogen activated protein kinase signaling transduction pathway,HOG-MAPK）是调控酿酒酵母对外界高渗透压胁迫环境应答的主要途径,促分裂原蛋白激酶Hog1p（MAPK Hog1p）是其中的关键性作用因子.在高渗透压刺激时,MAPK Hog1p接受信号被特异性激活并进入核内,调控相关胁迫应答基因的表达,并介导该时期细胞周期的阻滞,从而增强细胞对外界不利环境的适应能力.对胁迫条件下酿酒酵母中MAPK Hog1p作用机制的进一步研究,有利于更深入地了解哺乳动物体内逆境激发促分裂原蛋白激酶途径的功能和调控机制.     

The Sho1 adaptor protein links oxidative stress to morphogenesis and cell wall biosynthesis in the fungal pathogen Candida albicans

The Sho1 adaptor protein is an important element of one of the two upstream branches of the high-osmolarity glycerol (HOG) mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a signal transduction cascade involved in adaptation to stress. In the present work, we describe its role in the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans by the construction of mutants altered in this gene. We report here that sho1 mutants are sensitive to oxidative stress but that Sho1 has a minor role in the transmission of the phosphorylation signal to the Hog1 MAP kinase in response to oxidative stress, which mainly occurs through a putative Sln1-Ssk1 branch of the HOG pathway. Genetic analysis revealed that double ssk1 sho1 mutants were still able to grow on high-osmolarity media and activate Hog1 in response to this stress, indicating the existence of alternative inputs of the pathway. We also demonstrate that the Cek1 MAP kinase is constitutively active in hog1 and ssk1 mutants, a phenotypic trait that correlates with their resistance to the cell wall inhibitor Congo red, and that Sho1 is essential for the activation of the Cek1 MAP kinase under different conditions that require active cell growth and/or cell wall remodeling, such as the resumption of growth upon exit from the stationary phase. sho1 mutants are also sensitive to certain cell wall interfering compounds (Congo red, calcofluor white), presenting an altered cell wall structure (as shown by the ability to aggregate), and are defective in morphogenesis on different media, such as SLAD and Spider, that stimulate hyphal growth. These results reveal a role for the Sho1 protein in linking oxidative stress, cell wall biogenesis, and morphogenesis in this important human fungal pathogen.     

Heat stress activates the yeast high-osmolarity glycerol mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway,and protein tyrosine phosphatases are essential under heat stress

The yeast high-osmolarity glycerol (HOG) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway has been characterized as being activated solely by osmotic stress. In this work, we show that the Hog1 MAPK is also activated by heat stress and that Sho1, previously identified as a membrane-bound osmosensor, is required for heat stress activation of Hog1. The two-component signaling protein, Sln1, the second osmosensor in the HOG pathway, was not involved in heat stress activation of Hog1, suggesting that the Sho1 and Sln1 sensors discriminate between stresses. The possible function of Hog1 activation during heat stress was examined, and it was found that the hog1Δ strain does not recover as rapidly from heat stress as well as the wild type. It was also found that protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) Ptp2 and Ptp3, which inactivate Hog1, have two functions during heat stress. First, they are essential for survival at elevated temperatures, preventing lethality due to Hog1 hyperactivation. Second, they block inappropriate cross talk between the HOG and the cell wall integrity MAPK pathways, suggesting that PTPs are important for maintaining specificity in MAPK signaling pathways.     

球孢白僵菌Hog1 MAPK同源基因BbHog1的克隆及特征分析

根据几种丝状真菌Hog1 MAPK的保守氨基酸序列设计简并引物,从昆虫病原真菌球孢白僵菌中扩增出MAPK同源基因的部分片段,然后利用YADE法延伸该片段的上、下游邻接序列,获得MAPK编码基因的全长序列,命名为BbHog1。序列分析表明,该基因编码358个氨基酸的多肽,推测分子量为40.99kDa,等电点为5.49。BbHog1含有MAPK保守的蛋白激酶激活域(TGY),序列与粗糙脉孢霉os-2(AF297032)、烟曲霉OSM1(XM_747571)、隐球酵母HOG1(AF243531)和酿酒酵母Hog1(Z73285)等Hog1 MAPK高度同源,相似性分别为94%、89%、83%和80%。系统聚类结果表明,BbHog1与酵母Hog1 MAPK同源。Southern杂交表明,BbHog1在球孢白僵菌基因组中以单拷贝形式存在。Northern分析表明,BbHog1在高渗、亚高温和营养胁迫等条件下的表达明显升高。由此推测,BbHog1基因可能与球孢白僵菌对逆境胁迫的适应性调节密切相关。