Early plant domestications in southern India: some preliminary archaeobotanical results

Analysis of flotation samples from twelve sites in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (south India) provides clear evidence for the predominant subsistence plants of the Neolithic period (2,800–1,200 cal b.c.). This evidence indicates that the likely staples were two pulses (Vigna radiata and Macrotyloma uniflorum) and two millet-grasses (Brachiaria ramosa and Setaria verticillata) which were indigenous to the Indian peninsula. At some sites there is evidence for limited cultivation of wheats (Triticum diococcum, Triticum durum/aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare), and a few crops that originated in Africa, including hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and finger millet (Eleusine coracana). In addition there is evidence for cotton (Gossypium sp.), and linseed (Linum sp.), as well as gathered fruits of Ziziphus and two Cucurbitaceae. This evidence suggests that the earliest agriculture in south India, dating to the third millennium b.c., was based on plants domesticated in the region, and that subsequently from the late 3^rd millennium b.c. through the 2^nd millennium additional crops from other regions were adopted into the subsistence system.Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00334-004-0036-9     

Wild fruit use among early farmers in the Neolithic (5400–2300 cal <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">bc</Emphasis>) in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula: an intensive practice?

The archaeobotanical record of 24 sites from the Neolithic period (5400–2300 cal bc) in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula is evaluated. Remarkable amounts of data have recently been obtained for the early and middle Neolithic phases. Most of the studied sites were dry and they only yielded charred plant material. Among dry sites, several types of context were evaluated: dwelling areas, hearths, roasting pits and byres. Material was also analysed from a waterlogged cultural layer of one early Neolithic lakeshore site, La Draga. Quercus sp. (acorns), Corylus avellana L. (hazelnuts), Pistacia lentiscus L. (mastic fruits) and Vitis vinifera L. var. sylvestris (wild grapes) were among the most frequently encountered fruits and seeds. Their presence in the archaeobotanical record clearly maps their past ecological distribution in the region. There are differences observed between the charred dry-land material and the waterlogged uncharred material. Wild fruits were mostly present in an uncharred state in La Draga. Therefore, their consumption could go unnoticed in dry sites when fruits were eaten raw or without roasting. Larger amounts of charred remains of certain wild fruits like acorns and hazelnuts found in mountain areas are highlighted as potential evidence of the regular practice of roasting, potentially indicating regional traditions. All in all, our results support an intensive wild plant use at least during the first 1,300 years of the Neolithic period. Evidence of wild plant food consumption becomes scanty towards the second phase of the middle and the late Neolithic (4th and 3rd millennium cal bc). This, however, might also be due to taphonomic reasons.     

A comparison of early Neolithic crop and weed assemblages from the Linearbandkeramik and the Bulgarian Neolithic cultures: differences and similarities

The spread of early agriculture from the Mediterranean to central Europe is still poorly understood. The new subsistence reached western central Europe during the second half of the 6th millennium cal b.c. This paper presents a comparison of crop and weed species from 33 Bandkeramik sites from Austria and Germany and six Bulgarian Neolithic sites. The aim is to investigate whether the early cultivation system brought in from the eastern Mediterranean was adapted to European conditions in Bulgaria or further West. Some characteristics of the potential weeds are interpreted with respect to the cultivation systems and the origin of the species.     

The presence of two-grained einkorn at the time of the Bandkeramik culture

At the end of the 6th millennium B. C. Triticum monococcum (einkorn) and Triticum dicoccum (emmer) were the main cereals of the early Neolithic Bandkeramik culture in central Europe. New archaeobotanical investigations at relevant Bandkeramik sites reveal the regular occurrence of morphologically two-grained einkorn. Some preliminary thoughts on the state of research and the possible origin of two-grained einkorn forms are presented here. Received January 7, 2002 / Accepted August 5, 2002 Correspondence to: Angela Kreuz     

Evidence for plant exploitation and vegetation history from three Early Neolithic pre-pottery sites on the Euphrates (Syria)

Archaeobotanical results based on a limited number of samples from three aceramic sites dating from 9800 to 7800 B.P., which are under excavation in the valley of the Middle Euphrates, are discussed. The finds are presented simply by presence, and are compared to the contemporary vegetation and finds from similar sites. Carbonised plant remains recovered by flotation from levels dated to between 9800 and 9200 B.P. (Dja'de and Jerf al Ahmar) indicate that wild cereals (einkorn wheat, rye and barley) and pulses (lentils, pea and bitter vetch) were exploited. Other plants such as wild grasses, Pistacia, wild almond and oak, suggest that the local vegetation provided a rich diversity of resources. A study of possible weed taxa is being carried out in order to see whether this assemblage could be used to identify the cultivation of morphologically wild cereals for this period. Ninth millennium B.P. levels at Halula see the appearance of domestic crops such as emmer, naked wheat and barley, but wild-type cereals persist. The cultivars appear to have been introduced from elsewhere and later ninth millennium B.P. species include olive and flax. Ash, vine, maple, plane, alder and elm from the gallery forest, wild rye, wild einkorn, deciduous oak, wild almond, Pistacia, and Pyrus, from the hinterland, indicate cooler conditions.     

Flax in Neolithic and Bronze Age Greece: archaeobotanical evidence

This paper presents an overview of archaeobotanical finds of Linum usitatissimum from Neolithic and Bronze Age Greece, bringing together published records of this plant as well as some recently retrieved, unpublished finds. In addition, charred flax seed concentrations from five prehistoric sites from the region of Macedonia in northern Greece, are examined in detail. The Neolithic sites are Makriyalos, Mandalo, Arkadikos, Dikili Tash, dated to the Late and Final Neolithic and Archondiko, dated to the end of the Early Bronze Age. Archaeobotanical composition and contextual information are used in order to explore the cultivation and potential uses of flax at each site. By the 5th millennium b.c. a flax weed flora had probably developed in the region. The use of flax seed for oil extraction and flax stems for flax fibre preparation can only be speculated upon and these uses are discussed within the context of other archaeological finds related to plant oil production and weaving. It is also possible that flax may have been used for medicinal purposes. Despite a striking paucity in archaeobotanical remains from southern Greece, textual evidence available from the Mycenean palace archives in Linear B clearly documents the cultivation of flax and flax fibre production.     

From the field to the hearth: plant remains from Neolithic Croatia (ca. 6000–4000 cal <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">bc</Emphasis>)

Until recently the recovery of plant remains in Croatia was rare, resulting in few studies addressing the nature of Neolithic crop cultivation. This paper presents new archaeobotanical data from eleven Neolithic settlements in coastal and continental Croatia. Within continental Croatia, three sites dating to the Star?evo culture (early/middle Neolithic; ca. 6000–5300 cal bc) and six to the Sopot culture (late Neolithic; ca. 5300–4000 cal bc) are examined along with two Hvar culture sites (late Neolithic; ca. 4800–4000 cal bc) located along the coast. Different settlement types are included in the study: open air sites, tells and cave sites. From the data collected the most common crops identified were einkorn, emmer, barley, lentil, pea and flax, as well as the fruits Cornus mas (Cornelian cherry) and Physalis alkekengi (Chinese lantern), which were particularly dominant in the Sopot culture settlements. By examining formation processes, sieved crop processing products and by-products were identified at six of the sites, suggesting that cereals were processed on a day-to-day basis at the household level. In contrast, the remains from the late Neolithic coastal cave site of Turska Pe? suggest two distinct formation processes. At the eastern side of the cave the plant remains suggest that episodes of dung burning occurred, possibly to clear the cave of excess waste during seasonal habitation of the cave by herders and livestock. Towards the back of the cave, cereal remains and higher charcoal densities may suggest an area used for food preparation or cooking.     

Les sépultures néolithiques de Can Gambús-2 (Sabadell,Espagne) : nouvelles données sur les pratiques funéraires de la culture des Sepulcros de fosa

The complex of La Bòbila Madurell-Can Gambús is one of the most remarkable site of the Iberian Peninsula. Various excavations carried out since the early 20th century led to the discovery of numerous remains from the Neolithic to the medieval and modern eras. In this regard, the Neolithic structures constitute one of the largest cemeteries of Western Mediterranean for this period. In this paper, we present a small group of graves, yet unpublished, located in the northern part of the necropolis, apart from the other concentrations of burials.     

Morphological studies of free-threshing wheat ears from a Neolithic site in southwest Germany, and the history of the naked wheats

Two hundred and seventy carbonized naked wheat ears from the Neolithic pile dwelling at Hornstaad-Hörnle IA/Lake Constance (Germany) were analysed. The characteristics of internodes and glumes show that only tetraploid naked wheat types were cultivated. Following the history of free-threshing wheats it seems conceivable that the tetraploid naked wheats spread from their point of origin in the Middle East (7th/8th millennium B.C.) via a Mediterranean route to southwest Europe, reaching the northern foothills of the Alps about 4000 B.C.     

The Early Neolithic site at Hoge Vaart, Almere, the Netherlands, with particular reference to non-diffusion of crop plants, and the significance of site function and sample location

The construction of a new motorway necessitated the excavation of an Early Neolithic site in the Dutch Flevopolder near the Hoge Vaart canal. In 1994-1996, an area of ca. 1700 m² was excavated in 0.5x0.5-m squares. The excavation revealed 150 surface hearths and more than a hundred deep hearth pits. The finds, mainly flint and pottery, as well as¹⁴C dates from charcoal demonstrated that the area had been used mainly during the Early Neolithic (ca. 4900–4500 cal. B.C.). The investigation of the Early Neolithic remains included detailed botanical analyses of 182 samples and hand-sorting by the excavation team, which included archaeobotanists, of tens of thousands of samples sieved over 2-mm-mesh sieves. No remains of cultivated plants were recognised among the 87 taxa (40 identified to species level) that were preserved, mainly in carbonised form. These results are compared with other Early Neolithic sites studied in the Netherlands, such as Swifterbant S3 and Schokland P14. The possible significance of site function and sample location as important factors influencing presence/absence of cultivated plant remains at a particular site is discussed.     

Vegetation changes and human action from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age (7000–4000 B.P.) in Alicante,Spain, based on charcoal analysis

Charcoal analysis reveals various palaeo-ecological phases from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. Agriculture starts about 7000 B.P. in favourable ecological conditions. Most of the charcoal spectra from sites on the coast represent thermomediterranean holm-oak forest; those from the inland mountains represent mesome-diterranean holm-oak forest. The Neolithic I Impressed Ware people were the first to clear the forest to plant their crops. This clearance of primary woodland resulted in the development of secondary vegetation of pine woods or scrub. The scrub reached its maximum during the Bell Beaker phase and Bronze Age in the Cova de les Cendres. In the Neolithic II open air sites, the percentages of Quercus ilex/coccifera remain high. This may be the result of a different exploitation of the land, or suitable conditions for the growth and survival of the vegetation.     

Continuity and changes in plant resources during the Neolithic period in western Switzerland

The Neolithic and Bronze Age (4400-1570 B.C.) pile dwellings of Concise-sous-Colachoz on the shore of Lake Neuchatel (Canton of Vaud, western Switzerland), known as an archaeological site for more than 140 years, were recently re-investigated due to rescue excavations. Plant macrofossil analyses were done for several Neolithic occupation phases (3868-2440 B.C. the Cortaillod classique, Cortaillod moyen, Cortaillod tardif and Auvernier periods) with a focus on cereal remains, and additionally, archaeological deposits dating to the Cortaillod moyen culture (3710-3677 B.C.) were studied in detail. The preliminary study of cereal macrofossil remains from all the mentioned Neolithic phases show that the most important cereals were Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum (naked wheat), T. monococcum (einkorn) and Hordeum vulgare (barley). The preferences for specific crops did obviously not alter significantly through time, but, extraordinarily, significant amounts of einkorn continued to be grown for at least 1400 years during the Neolithic period. Other cultivated plants were Pisum sativum (pea), Linum usitatissimum (flax), and Papaver somniferum (opium poppy). Additionally to the seeds, capsule fragments of opium poppy were found in the Cortaillod moyen deposits. These represent the first finds of uncharred capsule fragments in Europe. Compared with other central European sites, opium poppy was very common during the 38th and 37th cent. B.C. and obviously less appreciated towards the end of the Neolithic in the western part of Switzerland. In central Switzerland the trends seem different: there opium poppy was mainly used during the Late Neolithic period. This may be due to cultural differences within contemporaneous human societies. Wild fruits which were collected as plant resources during the Cortaillod moyen period included Prunus spinosa (sloe), Cornus sanguinea (dogwood), Malus sylvestris (apple), Rubus idaeus/caesius/fruticosus (raspberry/dewberry/blackberry), Fragaria vesca (wild strawberry), Rosa sp. (hip), Quercus sp. (acorn), Corylus avellana (hazelnut), and Fagus sylvatica (beechnut), among others. Compared with other Neolithic sites in westem and central Switzerland the local population of Concise-sous-Colachoz used few sloes, while dogwood fruits were in use throughout the Neolithic period at Lake Neuchatel. Received September 4, 2001 / Accepted May 13, 2002     

Mid- to late-Holocene vegetation history of Greater Exmoor,UK: estimating the spatial extent of human-induced vegetation change

This paper presents the results from three pollen profiles from a group of small spring mire sites on the southern edge of Exmoor in south west England. The size and topography of these sites allow detailed local landscape histories around each site to be reconstructed which broadly cover the mid- to late-Holocene. Comparison of the individual local landscape histories demonstrates the scale of spatial variation in vegetation around the upland edge, and facilitates understanding of human-landscape interactions from the early Neolithic onward. In the early Neolithic significant short-term woodland disturbance is recorded around the upland fringe, including clearance of oak-hazel-elm woodland, suggesting that the shift from Mesolithic to Neolithic is not marked by a gradual environmental transition. Following this, there is clear evidence of Neolithic management of upland heath using fire, presumably for the management of upland grazing. Woodland clearances are recorded throughout the later Prehistoric period; however, the use of multiple profiling suggests that woodland clearance is spatially discrete, even within an area of 4 km². Pastoral land use is dominant around the uplands until around 900–1,000 a.d., and there is no discernible Roman or post-Roman period impact in the vegetation, suggesting cultural stability from the late Iron Age to the early Medieval period. By 1,100 a.d., there is a shift to mixed arable-pastoral farming which appears to continue well into the post-Medieval period.     

Environmental change, bog history and human impact around 2900 b.c. in NW Germany–preliminary results from a dendroecological study of a sub-fossil pine woodland at Campemoor, Dümmer Basin

This paper presents a detailed dendroecological analysis of remains from a sub-fossil pine forest at the Campemoor in the Dümmer basin, NW Germany and of pine timbers from a contemporaneous Neolithic trackway Pr 32 through the Campemoor. Changes in growth pattern and population dynamics of the pines are discussed in context with the time of construction of the trackway. The findings date to the period around 3000 b.c. Together with palaeobotanical investigations (pollen and macro remains) and the archaeological results (trackway) the dendroecological analysis mirrors environmental changes and the response of people to these changes. In order to test this local development for a possible climate background, ring-width variability and population dynamics of the Campemoor pines and of the overall data set of Lower Saxonian sub-fossil oaks from bogs have been compared. The results of these investigations clearly indicate a common widespread turn from drier to more humid climate conditions as trigger for the transition period, initiating the raised bog growth. It happened in two phases at the beginning of the 3rd millennium, interrupted by a drier period between 2825 and 2770 b.c. Afterwards large areas of former settlement sites within today's Campemoor became inaccessible and were covered by raised bog.     

Grain versus chaff: identifying a contrast between grain-rich and chaff-rich sites in the Neolithic of northern Greece

Recent archaeobotanical investigations of Late Neolithic sites in northern Greece have revealed a pattern as regards the crop parts represented at each site. Some sites appear to be dominated by chaff, mainly glume wheat chaff, while other sites are mainly characterised by cereal grain and pulses. This pattern could be the outcome of various factors: a. pre-depositional differential treatment of crops selecting for one category of plant remains to arrive at the site, b. depositional, therefore related to the type of activity represented at the excavated contexts and the use of space in relation to plants, and c. post-depositional factors such as erosion, or the type of features sampled. These alternative factors are considered in light of the preliminary results of the archaeobotanical investigation of seven Late Neolithic (5500–4000 cal. B.C.) sites from northern Greece. It is suggested that this pattern is the outcome of a differential use of space in relation to plants (storage, processing/food preparation, refuse disposal), probably related to aspects of the socioeconomic organisation of the settlements.     

Fossil penguin (Aves: Sphenisciformes) cranial material from the Eocene of Seymour Island (Antarctica)

Our knowledge of the cranial morphology of early penguins remains poor, particularly for Paleogene taxa. This paper describes a partial penguin skull and additional isolated cranial elements from the Eocene La Meseta Formation of Seymour Island, Antarctica. These specimens cannot be assigned to named taxa at present, but there is a strong possibility they belong to La Meseta penguins known only from postcranial elements. The skull shares extensive dorsal development of the temporal fossae with extant and fossil Spheniscus and the fossil penguins Paraptenodytes and Marplesornis, indicating the adductor complex was powerful in early penguins. Partial mandibles belonging to a much larger penguin are similar to Paraptenodytes and differ from all living penguins in the lack of a hooked medial process of the articular and the presence of a foramen anterior to the mandibular cotyles. Given the rarity of penguin cranial remains, these specimens provide important new insight into early penguin evolution.     

Archaeobotanical investigations of late neolithic lakeshore settlements (Lake Biel, Switzerland)

This paper describes the results of the archaeobotanical examination of four Late Neolithic lakeshore settlements on Lake Biel in Switzerland. Due to the excellent preservation conditions in lakeshore settlements, non-carbonized as well as carbonized seeds and fruits were recovered in large numbers. In addition to the diaspore analyses, some samples of charcoal and moss were identified. The spectrum of cultivated plants was markedly different between the sites. In the transition from the 34th to 33rd century B.C. (sites Nidau, Lüscherz and Lattrigen ‘VI’) naked wheat and barley were predominant, while in the 32nd century B.C. (Lattrigen'VII') emmer (a glume wheat) was most abundant. Flax and opium poppy were of great importance during the whole late Neolithic period. In addition to cereals, a large number of cereal weeds were detected. The wild flora included a high percentage of aquatic and lake-shore plants which results from the strong influence of water on the cultural layers. Taxa of flood-plain forest are also common. The proportion of potential grassland plants was low (in total only 13 taxa) which suggests that in addition to the cultivated fields only few pastures and grassland areas existed close to the settlements.     

Relationships between lower limb cross-sectional geometry and mobility: the case of a Neolithic sample from Italy

This study investigates the relationships between lower limb robusticity and mobility in a Neolithic sample (LIG) from Italy (6th millennium BP). This study tests the hypothesis that the high femoral robusticity previously observed in the LIG sample is a consequence of the subsistence strategy (i.e., high mobility on uneven terrain) practiced by LIG. Cross-sectional geometric properties of the femur and tibia at midshaft of LIG (eight males and eight females) were collected and results compared to Late Upper Paleolithic (12 males, five females), Mesolithic (24 males, 8 females), and Eneolithic (28 males, 17 females) samples from other sites throughout Europe. The results show that the LIG sample does not show the reduction of lower limb robusticity that is characteristic of the Eneolithic sample, but rather that the LIG sample is most similar to the earlier, highly mobile, populations. This high level of robusticity in the LIG sample could reflect both their pastoral subsistence strategy combined with a rugged environment, as well as their earlier temporal position within the Neolithic. The results of this study further point to significant variation in male-female mobility patterns in the region, also possibly related to pastoral behavioral patterns.     

Closed forest or open woodland as natural vegetation in the surroundings of Linearbandkeramik settlements?

Deciduous woodland can be reconstructed as the potential vegetation cover of most parts of the Chernozem (black earth) loess areas settled by the early Neolithic farmers of the Bandkeramik culture in the sixth millennium b.c. The character of the woodland as closed, with few light-demanding plants, or more open is very important for the potential of an agricultural system. Botanical results are not able to indicate the composition of the woods quantitatively, but they can give indirect hints. It is discussed whether these archaeobotanical results, in combination with the characteristics of the wild and domesticated herbivores identified, can be interpreted with regard to the density of the woodland cover in Neolithic times. The use of the floodplains as pasture is interpreted from pollen analytical results.     

The diet of Eneolithic (Copper Age, Fourth millennium cal b.c.) pile dwellers and the early formation of the cultural landscape south of the Alps: a case study from Slovenia

Analyses were performed of plant remains from the Late Neolithic (in Slovenian terminology corresponding to Eneolithic or Copper Age, ca. 4300–2300 b.c.) pile dwelling Hočevarica in the Ljubljansko barje (Ljubljana Moor), Slovenia. This settlement existed between ca. 3650 and 3550 cal b.c. Seeds, fruits, wooden piles, macroscopic charcoal and pollen from the cultural layers were analysed. The remains of domestic plants such as charred grains of Hordeum vulgare (barley), Triticum monococcum, T. dicoccum (einkorn and emmer wheat) and Papaver somniferum (poppy seeds), as well as seeds of weeds such as Chenopodium album-type indicate early cultivation in the area. In addition, numerous remains of nuts and berries, especially of Quercus sp., Cornus mas, Rubus fruticosus and Corylus avellana demonstrate that the gathering of wild plants was an important part of subsistence. Palaeoecological and archaeobotanical data from Hočevarica further suggest that cleared land was used for agriculture and pastures during the Neolithic, and that different wood was cut for construction and for fuel. The species assemblage from Hočevarica is very similar to those recovered from northern Alpine lake dwelling sites, however, several new taxa (e.g. Lathyrus sativus, Vicia sp.) appear in the assemblage. One of the most surprising finds is the seed of wild grape (Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris), which are the oldest on-site remains of grapevine from Slovenia.