Axonal conduction velocity of motor units of rat's medial gastrocnemius muscle

Axonal conduction velocity and its relations to different contractile properties of motor units of medial gastrocnemius muscle were investigated in nine Wistar rats anaesthetized with pentobarbitone. Functionally isolated motor units were identified as slow (S), fast resistant (FR) and fast fatigable (FF). Axons of S motor units conducted significantly more slowly than of fast units, while there was considerable overlap between conduction velocities measured for FR and FF types. The mean values of conduction velocity were 50.9 m/s for S, 68.9 m/s for FR and 71.3 m/s for FF type motor units. Strong and significant negative correlation between conduction velocity and contraction time as well as half-relaxation time was demonstrated. However, only a weak correlation between conduction velocity and twitch tension, tetanic tension or fatigue index was found. The multiple regression analysis revealed that the major factor to determine conduction velocity was contraction time.     

Resistive vibration exercise during bed-rest reduces motor control changes in the lumbo-pelvic musculature

To understand the effects of a resistive vibration exercise (RVE) countermeasure on changes in lumbo-pelvic muscle motor control during prolonged bed-rest, 20 male subjects took part in the Berlin Bed-Rest Study (in 2003-2005) and were randomised to a RVE group or an inactive control group. Surface electromyographic signals recorded from five superficial lumbo-pelvic muscles during a repetitive knee movement task. The task, which required stabilisation of the lumbo-pelvic region, was performed at multiple movement speeds and at multiple time points during and after bed-rest. After excluding effects that could be attributed to increases in subcutaneous fat changes and improvements in movement skill, we found that the RVE intervention ameliorated the generalised increases in activity ratios between movement speeds (p ? 0.012), reductions in lumbo-pelvic extensor and flexor co-contraction (p = 0.058) and increases in root-mean-square electromyographic amplitude (p = 0.001) of the lumbar erector spinae muscles. Effects of RVE on preventing increases in amplitude-modulation (p = 0.23) of the lumbar erector spinae muscles were not significant. Few significant changes in activation-timing were seen. The RVE intervention during bed-rest, with indirect loading of the spine during exercise, was capable of reducing some, but not all, motor control changes in the lumbo-pelvic musculature during and after bed-rest.     

Ultrastructural diversity in motor units of crustacean stomach muscles

The physiological and ultrastructural properties of muscle fiber.s comprising three motor units in the gastric mill of blue crabs are described. In their contractile properties muscle fibers in all motor units are similar and resemble the slow type fibers in crustacean limb muscles. The majority of fibers generate large excitatory post-synaptic potentials which do not facilitate strongly. Structurally two types of fibers are found. The one type has long sarcomeres (greater than 6 mum), thin to thick myofilament ratios of 5-6:1 and diads located near the ends of the A-band. The other type has shorter sarcomeres (less than 6 mum), thin to thick myofilament ratios of 3:1 and diads located at mid sarcomere level. Both types of fibers occur within a single motor unit and this differs from the vertebrate situation. Furthermore, the finding of fibers with a low thin to thick myofilament ratio of 3:1 demonstrates that they are not exclusive to fast type crustacean muscle but also occur in slow stomach muscles.     

Spike-triggered average torque and muscle fiber conduction velocity of low-threshold motor units following submaximal endurance contractions.

The motor unit twitch torque is modified by sustained contraction, but the association to changes in muscle fiber electrophysiological properties is not fully known. Thus twitch torque, muscle fiber conduction velocity, and action potential properties of single motor units were assessed in 11 subjects following an isometric submaximal contraction of the tibialis anterior muscle until endurance. The volunteers activated a target motor unit at the minimum discharge rate in eight 3-min-long contractions, three before and five after an isometric contraction at 40% of the maximal torque, sustained until endurance. Multichannel surface electromyogram signals and joint torque were averaged with the target motor unit potential as trigger. Discharge rate (mean +/- SE, 6.6 +/- 0.2 pulses/s) and interpulse interval variability (33.3 +/- 7.0%) were not different in the eight contractions. Peak twitch torque and recruitment threshold increased significantly (93 +/- 29 and 12 +/- 5%, P <0.05) in the contraction immediately after the endurance task with respect to the preendurance values (0.94 +/- 0.26 mN.m and 3.7 +/- 0.5% of the maximal torque), whereas time to peak of the twitch torque did not change (74.4 +/- 10.1 ms). Muscle fiber conduction velocity decreased and action potential duration increased in the contraction after the endurance (6.3 +/- 1.8 and 9.8 +/- 1.8%, respectively, P <0.05; preendurance values, 3.9 +/- 0.2 m/s and 11.1 +/- 0.8 ms), whereas the surface potential peak-to-peak amplitude did not change (27.1 +/- 3.1 microV). There was no significant correlation between the relative changes in muscle fiber conduction velocity or surface potential duration and in peak twitch torque (R2= 0.04 and 0.10, respectively). In conclusion, modifications in peak twitch torque of low-threshold motor units with sustained contraction are mainly determined by mechanisms not related to changes in action potential shape and in its propagation velocity.     

Digit flexor muscles in the cat: their action and motor units

The relation between muscle action and the mechanical properties of motor units has been explored in the main digit flexors of the cat hind limb: plantaris (PL); flexor digitorum brevis (FDB); flexor hallucis longus (FHL); and, flexor digitorum longus (FDL). General observations on muscle action revealed that PL is an ankle extensor as well as a digit flexor. PL and FHL were shown to be the major force contributors to digit flexion with FDL playing a lesser but still significant role. The mechanical properties of PL, FHL and FDB motor units were studied by noting twitch and tetanic tensions produced by electrical stimulation of single alpha axons, functionally isolated from the ventral root filaments. These data were compared to similar data reported by Olson and Swett (1966) for flexor digitorum longus (FDL). Our sample (114 PL, 60 FDB and 124 FHL units) disclosed that PL, FDB and FHL have units of uniformly fast contraction times (means 22, 27 and 27 msec respectively). PL units developed the most tetanic tension (3 to 160, mean 62 gm-wt) followed by FHL (2 to 87, mean 31 gm-wt) with FDB units producing very little tension (1 to 20, mean 6 gm-wt). Swett and Olson's FDL sample (108 units) showed tensions ranging from 0.3 to 100 gm-wt (mean 10 gm-wt). A division of labor among the four muscles is proposed. The large PL units are advantageous for forceful phasic inputs to the digits during the locomotion and in keeping with PL's additional role as an ankle exstensor. The low output forces of FDB units are optimal for discrete input to the digits during subtle adjustments of posture. We propose that the larger fast contracting units of FHL are used primarily for forceful digit flexions required in locomotion and for phasic protrusion of the claws while the predominately small and slow contracting units of FDL are used for sustained claw protrusion.     

A point mutation in the microtubule binding region of the Ncd motor protein reduces motor velocity.

Non-claret disjunctional (Ncd) is a kinesin-related microtubule motor protein in Drosophila that functions in meiotic spindle assembly in oocytes and spindle pole maintenance in early embryos. The partial loss-of-function mutant ncdD retains mitotic, but not meiotic, function. The predicted NcdD mutant protein contains a V556-->F mutation in the putative microtubule binding region of the Ncd motor domain. Here we report an analysis of the properties of recombinant Ncd and NcdD proteins. A GST-NcdD fusion protein translocated microtubules approximately 10-fold more slowly than the corresponding wild-type protein in gliding assays. The maximum microtubule-stimulated ATPase activity of an NcdD motor domain protein was reduced approximately 3-fold and an approximately 3-fold greater concentration of microtubules was required for half-maximal stimulation of ATPase activity, compared with the corresponding wild-type protein. The Km for ATP and basal rate of ATP turnover were, in contrast, similar for the NcdD mutant and wild-type Ncd motor domain proteins. Pelleting assays demonstrated that the binding of the mutant NcdD motor protein to microtubules was reduced in the absence of nucleotide, relative to wild-type. The reduced velocity of NcdD translocation on microtubules is therefore correlated with reductions in microtubule-stimulated ATPase activity and affinity of the mutant motor for microtubules. The characteristics of the NcdD motor explain its meiotic loss of function, and are consistent with partial motor activity of Ncd being sufficient for its mitotic, but not its meiotic, role.     

Changes in muscle fiber conduction velocity indicate recruitment of distinct motor unit populations.

To obtain more insight into the changes in mean muscle fiber conduction velocity (MFCV) during sustained isometric exercise at relatively low contraction levels, we performed an in-depth study of the human tibialis anterior muscle by using multichannel surface electromyogram. The results show an increase in MFCV after an initial decrease of MFCV at 30 or 40% maximum voluntary contraction in all of the five subjects studied. With a peak velocity analysis, we calculated the distribution of conduction velocities of action potentials in the bipolar electromyogram signal. It shows two populations of peak velocities occurring simultaneously halfway through the exercise. The MFCV pattern implies the recruitment of two different populations of motor units. Because of the lowering of MFCV of the first activated population of motor units, the newly recruited second population of motor units becomes visible. It is most likely that the MFCV pattern can be ascribed to the fatiguing of already recruited predominantly type I motor units, followed by the recruitment of fresh, predominantly type II, motor units.     

Motor unit discharge pattern and conduction velocity in patients with upper motor neuron syndrome

Motor unit properties were analyzed in patients with upper motor neuron syndrome (UMNS). Multi-channel surface electromyographic (EMG) signals were recorded for 300 s from the biceps brachii muscle of seven male subacute patients (time from lesion, mean ± SE, 4.9 ± 1.0 months). In three patients, both arms were investigated, leading to 10 recorded muscles. Patients were analyzed in rest-like condition with motor units activated due to pathological muscle overactivity. For a total of 12 motor units, the complete discharge pattern was extracted from EMG decomposition. Interpulse interval variability was 7.8 ± 0.9%. At minimum discharge rate (6.4 ± 0.4 pulses per second, pps), conduction velocity was smaller than at maximum discharge rate (12.0 ± 0.9 pps) in all motor units (3.60 ± 0.21 m/s vs. 3.84 ± 0.20 m/s). Conduction velocity changed by 1.35 ± 0.48% (different from zero, P < 0.01) for each increase of 1 pps in discharge rate. It was concluded that conduction velocity of low-threshold motor units in subacute patients with UMNS had similar values as reported in healthy subjects and was positively correlated to instantaneous discharge rate (velocity recovery function of muscle fibers).     

Properties of twitch motor units of the ankle extensor muscles in the bullfrog Rana catesbeiana

A study of the mechanical properties of the twitch motor units in the ankle extensor muscles of bullfrogs was undertaken to expand our view of the diversity of motor unit properties among vertebrates. Two muscles were chosen that represent a wide range of extensor function: the plantaris longus (PL) is a large muscle providing most of the force for ankle extension in hopping and swimming, and the tibialis posticus (TP) is relatively small and may act as an ankle stabilizer or be primarily postural in function. Both muscles have highly fatigable motor units, but also some (especially in TP) low or non-fatigable ones. Mean tetanic tensions of motor units in both muscles are relatively large as compared with those of mammals but are especially large in PL, No clear correlations were found between contraction times and either motor unit tetanic tensions or fatigability, nor did the motor units fall into clearly defined types based on any functional parameters. Overall contraction and relaxation times are slow compared with those of mammals and are somewhat slow compared to those of other frogs; unlike results from earlier studies, the large units of PL are slower than the small units of TP. This results in PL units reaching fused tetani at lower stimulus frequencies. The twitch/tetanus and force/frequency ratios in PL motor units are much larger than those of TP, giving PL units greater relative forces at lower stimulus rates. These results are discussed in the context of motor unit function. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Discharge properties of motor units during steady isometric contractions performed with the dorsiflexor muscles

The purpose of this study was to record the discharge characteristics of tibialis anterior motor units over a range of target forces and to import these data, along with previously reported observations, into a computational model to compare experimental and simulated measures of torque variability during isometric contractions with the dorsiflexor muscles. The discharge characteristics of 44 motor units were quantified during brief isometric contractions at torques that ranged from recruitment threshold to an average of 22 ± 14.4% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) torque above recruitment threshold. The minimal [range: 5.8-19.8 pulses per second (pps)] and peak (range: 8.6-37.5 pps) discharge rates of motor units were positively related to the recruitment threshold torque (R(2) ≥ 0.266; P < 0.001). The coefficient of variation for interspike interval at recruitment was positively associated with recruitment threshold torque (R(2) = 0.443; P < 0.001) and either decreased exponentially or remained constant as target torque increased above recruitment threshold torque. The variability in the simulated torque did not differ from the experimental values once the recruitment range was set to ～85% MVC torque, and the association between motor twitch contraction times and peak twitch torque was defined as a weak linear association (R(2) = 0.096; P < 0.001). These results indicate that the steadiness of isometric contractions performed with the dorsiflexor muscle depended more on the distributions of mechanical properties than discharge properties across the population of motor units in the tibialis anterior.     

Detection of individual motor units of the puborectalis muscle by non-invasive EMG electrode arrays

PURPOSE: The purpose of the study was to demonstrate that anatomical features of individual motor units of the puborectalis muscle can be detected with non-invasive electromyography (EMG) and to evaluate differences in electrophysiological properties of the puborectalis muscles in a small group of healthy and pathologic subjects. METHODS: Multichannel EMG was recorded by means of a flexible probe applied on the gloved index finger and carrying an array of eight equally spaced (1.15 mm) electrodes. A multichannel EMG amplifier provided seven outputs corresponding to the pairs of adjacent electrodes. Tests were performed in three different positions (dorsal, left and right) over the puborectalis muscle on 20 subjects (nine healthy, seven constipated and four incontinent patients). Motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) generated at the innervation zone of a MU and propagating along the muscle fibers generated repetitive characteristic patterns on the seven output channels allowing identification of anatomical features of the motor units. RESULTS: MUAPs were observed travelling in either one or both directions with the array in dorsal position, and mainly in ventral-to-dorsal direction in either lateral position. MUAP amplitude was lower in constipated and incontinent patients with respect to healthy subjects. The conduction velocity estimated on the identified MUAPs was lower for constipated patients with respect to healthy subjects suggesting different mechanical properties of the active motor units. CONCLUSIONS: This technique allows the extraction of relevant information about the anatomical features (innervation zone position and overlapping of motor unit branches) of the puborectalis muscle and its electrophysiological properties and maybe can be applied as an novel methodology for assessing the anorectal function in patients.     

Startle stimuli exert opposite effects on human cortical and spinal motor system excitability in leg muscles

Increased excitability of the spinal motor system has been observed after loud and unexpected acoustic stimuli (AS) preceding H-reflexes. The paradigm has been proposed as an electrophysiological marker of reticulospinal tract activity in humans. The brainstem reticular formation also maintains dense anatomical interconnections with the cortical motor system. When a startling AS is delivered, prior to transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), the AS produces a suppression of motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitude in hand and arm muscles of healthy subjects. Here we analyzed the conditioning effect of a startling AS on MEP amplitude evoked by TMS to the primary motor leg area. Ten healthy volunteers participated in two experiments that used a conditioning-test paradigm. In the first experiment, a startling AS preceded a suprathreshold transcranial test stimulus. The interstimulus interval (ISI) varied between 20 to 160 ms. When given alone, the test stimulus evoked a MEP amplitude of approximately 0.5 mV in the slightly preinervated soleus muscle (SOL). In the second experiment, the startling AS was used to condition the size of the H-reflex in SOL muscle. Mean MEP amplitude was calculated for each ISI. The conditioning AS suppressed MEP amplitude at ISIs of 30-80 ms. By contrast, H-reflex amplitude was augmented at ISIs of 100-200 ms. In conclusions, acoustic stimulation exerts opposite and ISI-specific effects on the amplitude of MEPs and H-reflex in the SOL muscle, indicating different mechanism of auditory-to-motor interactions at cortical and spinal level of motor system.     

Nonlinear surface EMG analysis to detect changes of motor unit conduction velocity and synchronization.

Amplitude and frequency content of the surface electromyographic (EMG) signal reflect central and peripheral modifications of the neuromuscular system. Classic surface EMG spectral variables applied to assess muscle functions are the centroid and median power spectral frequencies. More recently, nonlinear tools have been introduced to analyze the surface EMG; among them, the recurrence quantification analysis (RQA) was shown to be particularly promising for the detection of muscle status changes. The purpose of this work was to analyze the effect of motor unit short-term synchronization and conduction velocity (CV) on EMG spectral variables and two variables extracted by RQA, the percentage of recurrence (%Rec) and determinism (%Det). The study was performed on the basis of a simulation model, which allowed changing the degree of synchronization and mean CV of a number of motor units, and of an experimental investigation of the surface EMG signal properties detected during high-force-level isometric fatiguing contractions of the biceps brachii muscle. Simulations and experimental results were largely in agreement and show that 1) spectral variables, %Rec, and %Det are influenced by CV and degree of synchronization; 2) spectral variables are highly correlated with %Det (R = -0.95 in the simulations and -0.78 and -0.75 for the initial values and normalized slopes, respectively, in the experimental signals), and thus the information they provide on muscle properties is basically the same; and 3) variations of %Det and %Rec in response to changes in muscle properties are significantly larger than the variations of spectral variables. This study validates RQA as a means for fatigue assessment with potential advantages (such as the higher sensitivity to changes of muscle status) with respect to the classic spectral analysis.