Swimming performance of hatchling green turtles is affected by incubation temperature

In an experiment repeated for two separate years, incubation temperature was found to affect the body size and swimming performance of hatchling green turtles (Chelonia mydas). In the first year, hatchlings from eggs incubated at 26°C were larger in size than hatchlings from 28 and 30°C, whilst in the second year hatchlings from 25.5°C were similar in size to hatchings from 30°C. Clutch of origin influenced the size of hatchlings at all incubation temperatures even when differences in egg size were taken into account. In laboratory measurements of swimming performance, in seawater at 28°C, hatchlings from eggs incubated at 25.5 and 26°C had a lower stroke rate frequency and lower force output than hatchlings from 28 and 30°C. These differences appeared to be caused by the muscles of hatchlings from cooler temperatures fatiguing at a faster rate. Clutch of origin did not influence swimming performance. This finding that hatchling males incubated at lower temperature had reduced swimming ability may affect their survival whilst running the gauntlet of predators in shallow near-shore waters, prior to reaching the relative safety of the open sea.     

High thermal variance in naturally incubated turtle nests produces faster offspring

The effects of climate change on populations are complex and difficult to predict, and can result in mismatches between interdependent organisms or between organisms and their environment. Reptiles with temperature-dependent sex determination may be able to compensate for potential skews in offspring sex ratio caused by climate change by selecting cooler (i.e., shadier) nest sites. Although changing nest location may prevent sex ratio skews, it may also affect thermally sensitive performance traits in offspring. I tested righting, sprinting, and swimming performance in hatchling painted turtles (Chrysemys picta), produced by female turtles from five populations across the species’ geographic range, nesting in a common-garden environment. I found that speed of hatchling performance was faster in hatchlings whose mothers originated from warmer climates, and that nests with higher mean daily variation in incubation temperature produced faster hatchlings. These results suggest that the increased temperatures predicted by climate change models could result in hatchling turtles that are faster at sprinting and swimming; however, it is not yet known how these performance measures translate into fitness.     

An unsuccessful attempt to elicit orientation responses to linearly polarized light in hatchling loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta)

Sea turtles undertake long migrations in the open ocean, during which they rely at least partly on magnetic cues for navigation. In principle, sensitivity to polarized light might be an additional sensory capability that aids navigation. Furthermore, polarization sensitivity has been linked to ultraviolet (UV) light perception which is present in sea turtles. Here, we tested the ability of hatchling loggerheads (Caretta caretta) to maintain a swimming direction in the presence of broad-spectrum polarized light. At the start of each trial, hatchling turtles, with their magnetic sense temporarily impaired by magnets, successfully established a steady course towards a light-emitting diode (LED) light source while the polarized light field was present. When the LED was removed, however, hatchlings failed to maintain a steady swimming direction, even though the polarized light field remained. Our results have failed to provide evidence for polarized light perception in young sea turtles and suggest that alternative cues guide the initial migration offshore.     

The rate of predation by fishes on hatchlings of the green turtle (Chelonia mydas)

This study addresses the need for empirical data on the survival of sea turtle hatchlings after entry into the sea by (1) developing a method for measuring marine predation; (2) estimating predation rates while crossing the reef; and (3) investigating the effect of environmental variables on predation rates. Predation rates were quantified by following individual hatchlings, tethered by a 10m monofilament nylon line, as they swam from the water's edge towards the reef crest. Predation rates under particular combinations of environmental variables (tide, time of day, and moon phase) were measured in separate trials. Predation rates varied among trials from 0 to 85% with a mean of 31% (SE=2.5%). The simplest logistic regression model that explained variation in predation contained tide and moon phase as predictor variables. The results suggest that noctural emergence from the nest is a behavioral adaptation to minimize exposure to the heat of the day rather than a predator-escape mechanism. For the green turtle populations breeding in eastern Australia, most first year mortality is caused by predation while crossing the reef within the first hour of entering the sea.     

Embryonic development rate and hatchling phenotypes in the Chinese three-keeled pond turtle (Chinemys reevesii): The influence of fluctuating temperature versus constant temperature

Although the effects of constant temperatures on hatchling traits have been extensively studied in reptiles, the effects of fluctuating temperatures remain poorly understood. Eggs of the Chinese three-keeled pond turtle (Chinemys reevesii) were incubated at a constant temperatures (28 °C) and two fluctuating temperatures (28±3 °C and 28±6 °C) to test for the influence of thermal environment on incubation duration, hatchling traits, and post-hatching growth. Incubation duration was shorter at constant temperature than at fluctuating temperatures. The sex ratio of hatchlings varied among temperature treatments, with more females from 28±6 °C than from 28 °C. The size and mass were greater for hatchlings from a constant temperature than from fluctuating ones, but this difference in body size disappeared when the hatchlings were 3 months old. In addition, the swimming ability, survival, and growth of hatchlings from fluctuating temperatures did not differ from those of hatchlings from constant temperature, when they were kept at an artificial environment without food scarcity or predation. Therefore, the thermal environments with various temperature fluctuations used in this study do not significantly affect fitness-related hatchling traits in this species.     

孵化温度对王锦蛇胚胎代谢和幼体适合度的影响

孵化温度所驱动的爬行动物的表型变异是生理生态学研究的热点。本研究以王锦蛇(Elaphe carinata)为实验动物,检验了24℃和28℃孵化温度对王锦蛇胚胎代谢速率、孵化过程中的卵重量、孵出幼体代谢和行为的影响。研究结果显示:卵重和胚胎的呼吸代谢均与孵化时间呈正相关;28℃下胚胎代谢速率大于24℃;幼蛇孵出15 d内体重随着生长时间的延长而减小,24℃孵出幼体的代谢速率大于28℃孵出幼体,两温度下孵出幼体的呼吸代谢速率和生长时间无显著关系;28℃孵出幼体的疾游速和吐信频次均大于24℃;两孵化温度孵出幼体的选择体温无显著差异,但在消耗完体内的剩余卵黄后28℃孵出幼体有60%的个体摄食,而24℃孵出幼体无摄食个体。总体而言,王锦蛇28℃孵出幼体适合度优于24℃孵出幼体。     

Responses of hatchling sea turtles to rotational displacements

After emerging from underground nests, sea turtle hatchlings migrate through the surf zone and out to the open ocean. During this migration, both waves and water currents can disrupt hatchling orientation by unpredictably rotating the turtles away from their migratory headings. In addition, waves cause turtles to roll and pitch, temporarily impeding forward swimming by forcing the hatchlings into steeply inclined positions. To maintain seaward orientation and remain upright in the water column, hatchlings must continuously compensate for such displacements. As a first step toward determining how this is achieved, we studied the responses of loggerhead (Caretta caretta L.) sea turtle hatchlings to rotational displacements involving yaw, roll, and pitch. Hatchlings responded to rotations in the horizontal plane (yaw) by extending the rear flipper on the side opposite the direction of rotation. Thus, the flipper presumably acts as a rudder to help turn the turtle back toward its original heading. Turtles responded to rotations in the roll plane with stereotypic movements of the front flippers that act to right the hatchlings with respect to gravity. Finally, hatchlings responded to rotations in the pitch plane with movements of the hind flippers that appear likely to curtail or counteract the pitching motion. Thus, the results of these experiments imply that young sea turtles emerge from their nests possessing a suite of stereotypic behavioral responses that function to counteract rotational displacements, enable the animals to maintain equilibrium, and facilitate efficient movement toward the open sea.     

Thermal plasticity of diving behavior, aquatic respiration, and locomotor performance in the Mary River turtle Elusor macrurus

Locomotion is a common measure of performance used in studies of thermal acclimation because of its correlation with predator escape and prey capture. However, for sedentary animals such as freshwater turtles, we propose that diving behavior may be a more ecologically relevant measure of performance. Increasing dive duration in hatchling turtles reduces predator exposure and therefore functions as an ecological benefit. Diving behavior is thermally dependent, and in some species of freshwater turtles, it is also reliant on aquatic respiration. This study examined the influence of thermal acclimation on diving behavior, aquatic respiration, and locomotor performance in the endangered, bimodally respiring Mary River turtle Elusor macrurus. Diving behavior was found to partially acclimate at 17 degrees C, with turtles acclimated to a cold temperature (17 degrees C) having a significantly longer dive duration than hatchlings acclimated to a warm temperature (28 degrees C). This increase in dive duration at 17 degrees C was not a result of physiological alterations in metabolic rate but was due instead to an increase in aquatic oxygen consumption. Increasing aquatic oxygen consumption permitted cold-acclimated hatchlings to remain submerged for significantly longer periods, with one turtle undertaking a dive of over 2.5 d. When burst-swimming speed was used as the measure of performance, thermal acclimation was not detected. Overall, E. macrurus demonstrated a partial ability to acclimate to changes in environmental temperature.     

Response of diapausing eggs hatching to changes in temperature and the presence of fish kairomones

It has been hypothesized that the production of diapausing eggs in Daphnia can be induced by fish kairomones. A population of Daphnia could survive severe predation using this predator avoidance strategy. However, in changing environments, diapausing eggs experience various temperature conditions, and hatchlings at emergence may be exposed to the same predation risks as their mothers. Therefore, staying in diapause or an immediate response upon hatching to available environmental information could be important for hatchling survival. For this study, we investigated the impact of water temperature (10, 15, 20, and 25°C) in the presence and absence of fish kairomones (Lepomis macrochirus) on the hatching success of resting eggs (D. galeata). Results show that no diapausing eggs hatched at the lowest temperature (10°C), and the highest hatch percentage occurred at 15°C. Although higher water temperatures reduced hatching success, diapausing eggs hatched more quickly. The number of hatchlings was significantly higher after exposure to fish kairomones, and this was more noticeable at higher temperatures (20 and 25°C). The present results suggest that the diapausing eggs were produced as a predator avoidance strategy in Daphnia; however, the presence of fish works as a positive signal to increase hatchlings when the diapausing stage is terminated.     

中华鳖新孵幼体的热耐受性、体温昼夜变化和运动能力的热依赖性

研究中华鳖新孵幼体的热耐受性、体温及温度对运动能力的影响 .结果表明 ,在干燥和潮湿环境下 ,选择体温分别为 2 8.0℃和 30 .3℃ ;潮湿环境下 ,临界高温和低温分别为 40 .9℃和 7.8℃ .在缺乏温度梯度的热环境中 ,水温对幼鳖体温的影响比气温更直接 ,体温和环境温度的昼夜变化相一致 ,说明幼鳖生理调温能力很弱 .在有温度梯度的热环境中 ,幼鳖能通过行为调温将体温维持到较高且较恒定的水平 ,导致体温昼夜变化不明显 .幼鳖运动能力有显著的热依赖性 ,在一定温度范围内随体温升高而增强 .体温31.5℃时 ,幼鳖的运动表现最好 ,最大续跑距离、单位时间跑动距离和单位时间停顿次数分别为 1.87m、4 92m·min-1和 6 .2次·min-1.体温过高时 ,运动能力下降 .当体温为 33 .0℃时 ,最大续跑距离、单位时间跑动距离和单位时间停顿次数分别为 1.30m、4.2 8m·min-1和 7.7次·min-1.     

On the dispersal of leatherback turtle hatchlings from Mesoamerican nesting beaches

So little is known about the early life history of leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) from hatchling to adulthood that this period has been termed the 'lost years'. For critically endangered eastern Pacific leatherback populations, continued and rapid declines underscore the urgent need to develop conservation strategies across all life stages. We investigate leatherback hatchling dispersal from four Mesoamerican nesting beaches using passive tracer experiments within a regional ocean modelling system. The evolution of tracer distribution from each of the nesting beaches showed the strong influence of eddy transport and coastal currents. Modelled hatchlings from Playa Grande, Costa Rica, were most likely to be entrained and transported offshore by large-scale eddies coincident with the peak leatherback nesting and hatchling emergence period. These eddies potentially serve as 'hatchling highways', providing a means of rapid offshore transport away from predation and a productive refuge within which newly hatched turtles can develop. We hypothesize that the most important leatherback nesting beach remaining in the eastern Pacific (Playa Grande) has been evolutionarily selected as an optimal nesting site owing to favourable ocean currents that enhance hatchling survival.     

Characteristics of nest soil, but not geographic origin, influence cold hardiness of hatchling painted turtles

We investigated environmental factors influencing cold hardiness in hatchling painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) indigenous to northeastern Indiana and the Sandhills of west-central Nebraska. In both locations, hatchlings overwinter in their natal nests. Survival of hatchlings chilled to minimum temperatures between -2.5 and -6.0 degrees C inside explanted natal nests ranged from 30 to 100%. Mortality likely was caused by freezing of the turtles that was induced by contact with ice nuclei in the surrounding soil. Susceptibility to inoculative freezing was strongly influenced by moisture content (7.5-25%, w/w) of the frozen soil in which hatchlings were cooled. When chilled in soil containing 15% moisture, turtles from Indiana resisted inoculative freezing better than hatchlings from Nebraska, but this variation was due to physical characteristics of the soils indigenous to each locale rather than genetic differences between populations. Soil in which the Indiana turtles nested contained relatively higher amounts of clay and organic matter, and bound more moisture, than the loamy sand at the Nebraska site. Soil collected from both locales contained potent ice nuclei that may constrain supercooling of the hatchlings, even in the absence of soil moisture. In addition to temperature and precipitation, local and regional variation in soils is an important determinant of overwintering survival of hatchling C. picta.     

Compass Orientation During Dispersal of Freshwater Hatchling Snapping Turtles (Chelydra serpentina) and Blanding's Turtles (Emydoidea blandingii)

Freshwater turtle hatchlings primarily use visual cues for orientation while dispersing from nests; however, hatchlings rapidly develop a relationship between a sun or geomagnetic compass and a dispersal target that allows them to maintain an established direction of movement when target habitats are not visible. We examined dispersal patterns of hatchling snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina) and Blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii) dispersing in large arenas in a mowed field and in dense corn. The dispersal of three categories of hatchlings were examined: (1) naïve individuals (no previous dispersal experience), (2) arena‐experienced (limited dispersal experience in arenas in natural habitat), and (3) natural‐experienced hatchling Blanding's turtles (captured after extensive experience dispersing W in natural habitats toward wetlands). Experienced hatchlings were assigned to treatments consisting of having a magnet or a non‐magnetic aluminum sham or nothing glued to their anterior carapace before release in the corn arena. Dispersal patterns of naïve hatchlings of both species were strongly directional in the field arena with visible target horizons and primarily random in the corn arena where typical target horizons were blocked. When released in corn, dispersal patterns were similar for arena‐experienced hatchlings with magnets or shams attached and differed from their prior dispersal headings in the field arena as naïve hatchlings. Natural‐experienced hatchling Blanding's turtles with and without magnets were able to accurately maintain their prior headings to the WNW while dispersing in the field or corn arenas (i.e., the presence of a magnet did not disrupt their ability to maintain their prior heading). Based on the assumption that no other type of compass exists in hatchlings, we conclude that they were not using a geomagnetic compass, but by default were using sun compass orientation to maintain dispersal headings in dense corn where no typical target habitats were visible.     

Near-surface enrichment of zooplankton over a shallow back reef: implications for coral reef food webs

Zooplankton were 3–8 times more abundant during the day near the surface than elsewhere in the water column over a 1–2.4 m deep back reef in Moorea, French Polynesia. Zooplankton were also significantly more abundant near the surface at night although gradients were most pronounced under moonlight. Zooplankton in a unidirectional current became concentrated near the surface within 2 m of departing a well-mixed trough immediately behind the reef crest, indicating that upward swimming behavior, rather than near-bottom depletion by reef planktivores, was the proximal cause of these gradients. Zooplankton were highly enriched near the surface before and after a full lunar eclipse but distributed evenly throughout the water column during the eclipse itself supporting light as a proximal cue for the upward swimming behavior of many taxa. This is the first investigation of the vertical distribution of zooplankton over a shallow back reef typical of island barrier reef systems common around the world. Previous studies on deeper fringing reefs found zooplankton depletion near the bottom but no enrichment aloft. In Moorea, where seawater is continuously recirculated out the lagoon and back across the reef crest onto the back reef, selection for upward swimming behavior may be especially strong, because the surface serves both as a refuge from predation and an optimum location for retention within the reef system. Planktivorous fish and corals that can forage or grow even marginally higher in the water column might have a substantial competitive advantage over those nearer the bottom on shallow reefs. Zooplankton abundance varied more over a few tens of centimeters vertical distance than it did between seasons or even between day and night indicating that great care must be taken to accurately assess the availability of zooplankton as food on shallow reefs.     

Hatchling painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) survive exposure to subzero temperatures during hibernation by avoiding freezing

Hatchling painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) were placed individually into artificial nests constructed in jars of damp soil and then were cooled slowly to temperatures between-7.7 and-12.7 °C. Distinct exotherms were recorded in all jars when water in the soil began to freeze at temperatures between-0.9 and-2.4 °C. A second (animal) exotherm was subsequently detected in some of the jars when water in hatchlings also began to freeze. An animal exotherm occurred in the temperature records for all 23 hatchlings that died in tests terminating at temperatures between-7.7 and-10.8 °C, but no such exotherm was apparent in the temperature records for the 23 turtles that survived these treatments. Moreover, the 4 hatchlings that produced exotherms in tests terminating between-11.5 and-12.7 °C failed to survive, but 5 of 7 hatchlings that produced no exotherm in these tests also died. Thus, turtles that die at subzero temperatures above-11 °C apparently succumb to freezing when ice propagates across their integument from the frozen soil, but animals that die at temperatures below-11 °C generally perish from some other cause. These findings indicate that hatchling painted turtles overwintering inside their shallow, subterranean nests survive exposure to subzero temperatures by avoiding freezing instead of by tolerating freezing.     

Survival and physiological responses of hatchling blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii) to submergence in normoxic and hypoxic water under simulated winter conditions

Overwintering habits of hatchling Blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii) are unknown. To determine whether these turtles are able to survive winter in aquatic habitats, we submerged hatchlings in normoxic (155 mmHg Po2) and hypoxic (6 mmHg Po2) water at 4 degrees C, recording survival times and measuring changes in key physiological variables. For comparison, we simultaneously studied hatchling softshell (Apalone spinifera) and snapping (Chelydra serpentina) turtles, which are known to overwinter in aquatic habitats. In normoxic water, C. serpentina and A. spinifera survived to the termination of the experiment (76 and 77 d, respectively). Approximately one-third of the E. blandingii died during 75 d of normoxic submergence, but the cause of mortality was unclear. In hypoxic water, average survival times were 6 d for A. spinifera, 13 d for E. blandingii, and 19 d for C. serpentina. Mortality during hypoxic submergence was probably caused by metabolic acidosis, which resulted from accumulated lactate. Unlike the case with adult turtles, our hatchlings did not increase plasma calcium and magnesium, nor did they sequester lactate within the shell. Our results suggest that hatchling E. blandingii are not particularly well suited to hibernation in hypoxic aquatic habitats.     

Consequences of temperature and temperature variability on swimming activity,group structure,and predation of endangered delta smelt

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Unusual gut contents in a Cretaceous ichthyosaur

Despite ichthyosaurs being one of the most extensively studied Mesozoic marine reptile groups, there is little documented direct evidence of dietary habits in most taxa. Here, we report the discovery of hatchling-sized marine protostegid turtle remains and an enantiornithine bird (in association with actinopterygian fish and phosphatic nodules) within the body cavity of a gravid female ichthyosaur (Platypterygius longmani) from the Lower Cretaceous of Australia; this is the first evidence, to our knowledge, of feeding by ichthyosaurs upon both turtles and birds. The exceptionally preserved gut contents show little evidence of digestion, suggesting consumption shortly before the ichthyosaur's death. Poor swimming ability may have made hatchling turtles easy prey that could have been either swallowed whole or processed by shake feeding. Ingestion of bird remains probably occurred through scavenging. Opportunistic feeding on vertebrates is at odds with existing interpretations of dietary habits in Cretaceous ichthyosaurs, which favour predation primarily upon cephalopods. Such specialization is considered a contributing factor in the group's ultimate extinction. However, the evidence here that at least some forms were able to use a wide range of available food types suggests that the decline of ichthyosaurs in the mid-Cretaceous may be linked to other factors such as competition with ecologically analogous pursuit predators.     

Exclusive predation of sea turtle hatchlings by juvenile blacktip reef sharks Carcharhinus melanopterus at a turtle nesting site in Malaysia

This study reports the discovery of the exclusive predation of sea turtle hatchlings by several juvenile blacktip reef sharks (Carcharhinus melanopterus) in Chagar Hutang bay on Redang Island, Malaysia, in the South China Sea. Three dead specimens of C. melanopterus were retrieved from ghost nets, and the entire digestive tracts of these sharks solely contained the partially digested bodies of sea turtle hatchlings, with no evidence of the remains of any other prey. Thus, juvenile C. melanopterus may opportunistically feed primarily on turtle hatchlings during times when hatchling abundance is high.     

The effect of the thermal environment on the ability of hatchling Galapagos land iguanas to avoid predation during dispersal

Summary During the month of February 1979, several hundred hatchling land iguanas (Conolophus pallidus) were observed emerging from their natal burrows in a 2 ha communal nesting area on Isla Santa Fe, Galapagos Islands. During this emergence, as many as nine Galapagos hawks were observed to patrol the nesting area and attack hatchling iguanas.The hypothesis that the ability of hatchling land iguanas to escape predation could be influenced by the interaction of the physiological state of the lizards and the thermal environment was analyzed using (1) empirical data on the effect of body temperature (T _b) on locomotory ability of iguanas and (2) biophysical modeling of the T _b's of hatchlings under natural conditions. This hypothesis was tested by assessing the success of natural hawk attacks on lizards exposed to different thermal environments.During those periods when predicted T _b's of hatchlings were always <32°C, (at which temperatures land iguanas were shown to have less than maximal ability to sprint rapidly) hawks were successful in 67% of the observed attacks. However, when T _b's of hatchlings were always 32° C, hawks were successful on only 19% of observed attacks. During periods when hatchling T _b's could be <32° C or 32–40° C (depending upon which microhabitat the hatchling occupied before the attack), the hawks were successful in 46% of the observed attacks.These data indicate that the physical environment, as mediated through the physiological state of the lizards and to correlated locomotary abilities, significantly affects the ability of hatchling land iguanas to escape predation.