Sulla Variazione E Sul Significato Dei Composti Purinici Nelle Piante

Abstract

The collections stored at the Sardinian Germplasm Bank (BG-SAR) were analysed to verify if setting conservation priorities on the exclusive endemic flora of Sardinia (Italy) would make it possible to reach the 2010 GSPC Target 8. By 2010, 39.9% of the exclusive-endemics of Sardinia, 43.1% of the BGCI European threatened species and 65.0% of the taxa listed in Annex II of DIR 92/43/EEC present on the island had been stored in BG-SAR. Of the stored plants, 40% of those listed in the DIR 92/43/EEC, and only 25.69% of the BGCI threatened plants are represented by an adequate number of populations. For a few of the stored threatened plants (ca. 36%), and for 60% of the DIR 92/43/EEC ones, at least one seedlot with more than 5000 seeds is available. These data indicate that focusing on exclusive endemics gave a substantial, although not decisive, contribution towards the achievement of the 2010 GSPC Target 8 in Sardinia, and that more efforts are needed to guarantee the effective long-term conservation of these threatened taxa with the aim of reaching the 2020 GSPC target.     

Using the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation to guide conservation implementation in the UK Overseas Territories

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) was adopted by the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 2002. Staff at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew were closely involved in the development of the GSPC and contributed to the development of several of the targets and the plan of work which resulted from its adoption. The GSPC has become a key document for Kew to help guide its conservation policy and implementation. The UK Overseas Territories (UKOTs) Programme is one of Kew’s cross-departmental science teams whose members work in collaboration with UKOT Governments and NGOs on conservation projects with the overall aim of supporting them in the implementation of the GSPC and in achieving its targets. The GSPC has provided an excellent overall framework to help shape conservation strategy, planning, and action in UKOTs. Like many small islands, UKOTs face a wide range of challenges in conserving their biodiversity and retaining ecosystem services whilst enabling development and maintaining livelihoods. Habitat loss and fragmentation, invasive alien species, development, and the increasing threat of global climate change present the most significant conservation challenges. At the heart of the UKOTs programme is a comprehensive work plan of specimen and data collection, mapping and capacity building in Territories plus facilitating access to historical specimens and data held at Kew. This enables progress towards achieving Targets 1, 2 and 3 (understanding and documenting plant diversity) and Targets 5, 7, 8 and 10 (conservation of plant diversity). All of these activities are accompanied by an extensive programme of capacity building to help support the development of technical skills and infrastructure to enable UKOTs to implement the GSPC (Targets 15 and 16) and the production of materials and interactions with schools and community groups to promote education and awareness-raising of plant conservation to achieve Target 14. UKOTs have been working with RBG Kew to prioritise activities in order to implement the GSPC and to identify those targets of most relevance locally. The main focus has been in documenting and understanding plant diversity and Targets 1 and 2 are close to completion for most UKOTs with good developments towards Target 3 for many. There is mixed progress with Objective 2 of the GSPC: conserving plant diversity. Excellent progress has been made with the ex situ Target 8, but more limited progress with the in situ targets and plant species still face many threats. Some Territories, most notably the Falkland Islands have made a good start with an Important Plant Areas programme. Although good progress has been made in documenting invasive species, there is major resource investment needed to implement the invasive species control strategies that have been identified. Good progress has been made with Target 14 and awareness is increasing, but there is a definite need for mainstreaming plant conservation issues. Some progress with Objective 5, building capacity for plant conservation, has been made, but a large ‘capacity gap’ remains and more trained personnel are needed with improved facilities and resources in order to implement the GSPC and meet its demanding targets. The GSPC has provided a unifying framework to enable conservation implementation across the UK’s Overseas Territories and will continue to do so in the post-2010 period.     

Gaps in seed banking are compromising the GSPC’s Target 8 in a megadiverse country

Ex situ seed conservation is an effective strategy to help safeguarding plants from extinction. The updated Global Strategy for Plant Conservation’s (GSPC) Target 8 aims to include 75% of threatened plant species in ex situ collections by 2020, preferably in the country of origin. Halfway through the updated GSPC program, we evaluate the current state of knowledge and practice of ex situ seed conservation of threatened species from megadiverse Brazilian flora, contributing to this Target. We identify knowledge gaps and costs to achieve Target 8 through seed banking in Brazil within the time constraints of the GSPC and in a scenario of recent science budget funding cuts. Knowledge on seed storage behavior is available only for 24 Brazilian species (1.3%). Seed desiccation tolerance was concluded for 175 of 228 species, feasibly allowing safe storage of most Brazilian species at sub-zero temperatures. However, only 26 species (1.3%) are effectively banked in research institutions. Surprisingly, the percentage of banked threatened species hardly increased in the first 5 years since the update of the Target (0.55%, 2011–2015), and Brazil now faces the challenge of banking almost 1500 species during 2016–2020. Despite a major lack of commitment of Brazilian institutions and of knowledge to achieve the Target, the costs for banking the remaining species were estimated to be only US$3.9 million. We call for a nationwide coordinated effort of government agencies, policy makers and research institutions to include ex situ seed conservation in the environmental agenda to pursue achievement of the Target by 2020.     

How to meet the 2020 GSPC target 8 in Europe: priority-setting for seed banking of native threatened plants

The contribution of the European Native Seed Conservation Network (ENSCONET, 2004-2009) and the ENSCONET Consortium (since 2010) towards meeting the 2020 Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) target 8 was assessed in 2017. While the outcome was positive (62.7% of European threatened species already conserved ex situ in seed banks), the analysis showed that it was essential to provide guidance on which European native threatened species should be collected as a priority if the target was to be reached by 2020. In this paper we present a priority-setting method and its result, designed to guide collecting strategies across Europe to meet the 2020 GSPC target 8. The result of our study is a country-based checklist of European threatened taxa to be collected and stored ex situ across the seed banks of the ENSCONET Consortium by 2020. After discussing the results of the applied method, the ENSCONET Consortium Steering Committee has identified some key action points to support the implementation of such a collecting strategy across Europe in order to meet the 2020 GSPC target 8 for Europe.     

The context and development of a global framework for plant conservation

A new international initiative for plant conservation was first called for as a resolution of the International Botanical Congress in 1999. The natural home for such an initiative was considered to be the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the CBD agreed to consider a Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) at its 5th meeting in 2000. It was proposed that the GSPC could provide an innovative model approach for target setting within the CBD and, prior to COP5, a series of inter-sessional papers on proposed targets and their justification were developed by plant conservation experts. Key factors that ensured the adoption of the GSPC by the CBD in 2002 included: (1) ensuring that prior to and during COP5, key Parties in each region were supportive of the Strategy; (2) setting targets at the global level and not attempting to impose these nationally; and (3) the offer by Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) to support a GSPC position in the CBD Secretariat for 3 years, which provided a clear indication of the support for the GSPC from non-governmental organizations (NGO).     

Ecological restoration in the Convention on Biological Diversity targets

Ecological restoration has been incorporated into several Multilateral Environmental Agreements, including the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Target 15 of the Aichi Targets for 2020 sets a numerical goal of restoration of 15 percent of degraded ecosystems; however, the CBD has not established a clear statement defining restoration within this context. Without such a definition, the CBD will be unable to measure progress against the goal. The adopted definition of ecological restoration would have to allow for measurement against the numerical target, or the target should be modified to match the chosen definition.     

Saving Europe’s threatened flora: progress towards GSPC Target 8 in Europe

The European flora is of global significance but many species are facing an ever increasing range of threats, especially the growing impacts of climate change. While various estimates have been made for the number of threatened plant species in Europe, an up-to-date European plant Red List does not presently exist. Target 8 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) calls for 60% of threatened plant species to be conserved in ex situ collections by 2010. In the absence of a European plant Red List, it is difficult to monitor progress at the regional level towards this target. To address this gap Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) has developed a consolidated list of European threatened species as a step towards a formal Red List. The database consists of national Red List data from 28 European countries and includes records for over 11,000 taxa. National Red List data were supplemented by information on the critically endangered plants of Europe provided by the Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity and the Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest. A list of regionally threatened species was extracted from the database and screened against BGCI’s database of plants in cultivation in botanic gardens (PlantSearch) and ENSCONET’s (European Native Seed Conservation Network) database of plants conserved in European seed banks. This analysis revealed that 42% of European threatened species are currently included in ex situ conservation programmes in Europe.     

What more can plant scientists do to help save the green stuff?

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) was the first such effort under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and had gone through a 3-year process to reach the level of maturity that enabled it to be approved by consensus by all Governments present at the key session in The Hague in April 2002. It provided a model for subsequent CBD workplans, with targets, and undoubtedly contributed to the 2010 target of reducing the rate of biodiversity loss. In the event, few of the targets were achieved, because of numerous constraints at both policy and implementation levels. Even so, the GSPC stands as an important milestone in the global effort to conserve biodiversity. However, few plant scientists can be satisfied that the essential steps are being taken to ensure the conservation of plants, although, of course, plant scientists are only one part of the complex effort that will be required. This paper offers some suggestions that might be worth consideration, building on the basic principle in politics that a strong constituency is necessary to victory. In other words, although plant scientists play a crucial role, plant conservation is too important to leave in their hands alone; far broader support is required, including from the private sector, agriculture, forestry, trade, economics, tourism and even the military. Although botanical science provides a solid foundation, other branches of science are also important, ranging from anthropology to zoology. The legal profession also has important contributions to make (as well as the ability to hamper progress – for example through using issues such as access and benefit sharing to limit the exchange of genetic materials for even noncommercial use). 2010 was the United Nations Year of Biodiversity, and the GSPC targets reached their due date. It therefore seems timely to add some additional perspectives to the effort to update the GSPC. This paper suggests ways to reach a far broader constituency, provides tools to those who are expected to achieve the targets, and suggests ways to build a strong international constituency to conserve the world's botanical wealth.     

Why are some biodiversity policies implemented and others ignored? Lessons from the uptake of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation by botanic gardens

International agreements and policies play an increasingly prominent role in strategies to combat biodiversity loss. However, conservation policies can only have a conservation impact if implemented. Identifying factors determining the influence of a policy on institutions could improve the process of policy development and communication. We examine how and why botanic gardens have responded to the first phase of a global conservation policy (the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation GSPC) using quantitative (questionnaires completed by 255 botanic gardens in 67 countries) and qualitative (in-depth interviews with five gardens in five countries) methods. We found that while the majority of gardens were aware of the GSPC, older gardens in the global north, and younger global south gardens are most influenced by the GSPC. Gardens that are members of a global botanic garden network and gardens with larger budgets are implementing more targets. Targets implemented tend to be aligned with existing institutional aims. Gardens highlighted an absence of a mechanism to feedback successes and failures. The GSPC has recently been reviewed and new targets for the period of 2011–2020 developed. To widen the influence of the GSPC, dissemination should include guidelines on how institutions could implement the policy, with particular focus on influencing younger global north gardens and older global south gardens. There are plans to develop a toolkit to help gardens better understand and implement the GSPC. We recommend the toolkit include a system for GSPC implementers to communicate with each other and to feedback to policy formulators.     

Comparing and contrasting threat assessments of plant species at the global and sub-global level

Evidence-based assessments of extinction risk are established tools used to inform the conservation of plant species, and form the basis of key targets within the framework of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC). An overall picture of plants threat assessments is challenging due to the use of a variety of methodologies and range in scope from global to subnational. In this study, we quantify the state of progress in assessing the extinction risk of all land plants, determine the key geographic and taxonomic gaps with respect to our understanding of plant extinction risk, and evaluate the impact of different sources and methodologies on the utility of plant assessments. To this end, we have analyzed a cleaned dataset compiled from IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and Regional Red Lists. We reveal that there are assessments available for 89,810 distinct species or 25% of all accepted land plant species. However unlike with other major organismal lineages the bulk of the plant species assessments are derived from Regional Red Lists, and not the Global IUCN Red List. We demonstrate that this bias towards regional assessments results in distinct taxonomic and geographic strengths and weaknesses, and we identify substantial taxonomic and geographic gaps in the assessment coverage. With species that have been assessed in common at both global and regional levels, we explore the implications of combining threat assessments from different sources. We find that half of global and regional assessments do not agree on the exact category of extinction risk for a species. Regional assessments assign a higher risk of extinction; or underestimate extinction risk with almost equal frequency. We conclude with recommended interventions, but support the suggestion that all threat assessments should be pooled to provide more data and broaden the scope of threat assessments for monitoring progress towards GSPC targets.     

Gap analyses to support ex situ conservation of genetic diversity in Magnolia, a flagship group

Worldwide about one third of all plant species is estimated to be threatened with extinction. Plants are generally under-represented in conservation. However, the global strategy for plant conservation (GSPC) sets forth 16 targets to halt the current and continuing loss of plant diversity within a framework for actions at global, regional, national and local levels. Target 8 of the GSPC directs that at least 75 % of threatened plant species be present in ex situ collections by 2020, but this target is far from being met. By analyzing where gaps in ex situ collections and research exist relative to diversity hotspots of threatened species, it is possible to identify and prioritize action. We undertake a gap analysis of ex situ collection needs in the genus Magnolia, a relatively well-known and valuable genus. Results indicate three main areas of biodiversity (China, Vietnam and Colombia) for the endangered Magnolia taxa. The present paper provides a critical overview of recent conservation activities carried out in the genus Magnolia throughout the world, focusing on genetic diversity analyses of the species.     

中国实施2020年全球生物多样性目标的进展

针对日益严峻的生物多样性丧失形势,国际社会于2010年通过了《生物多样性战略计划》（2011-2020年）。该战略计划确定了2020年全球生物多样性目标。采用“压力-状态-惠益-响应”模型,建立了评估2020年目标进展的指标体系。该指标体系包括生物多样性现状、生态系统服务、压力和响应4个方面,涉及17个一级指标、42个二级指标。研究表明,除目标2、16和18因缺乏相应指标无法评估外,目标1、3、4、5、7、10、11、14、15、17、19、20的相关评估指标均有不同程度的改善,表明这些目标的实施正沿着正确的轨道推进,特别是目标3（鼓励措施）、目标5（减少生境退化和丧失）、目标11（强化保护区系统和有效管理）、目标14（恢复和保障重要生态系统服务）、目标15（增强生态系统的复原力和碳储量）进展较大;但目标5中的草原生态系统保护,目标6（可持续渔业）、目标8（控制环境污染）、目标9（防治外来入侵物种）、目标12（保护受威胁物种）、目标13（保护遗传资源）的相关评估指标大多呈现恶化的趋势,表明虽然已开展了大量工作,但尚需采取更加有效的策略和措施才能实现这些目标。今后应进一步开发生物多样性价值、可持续消费、生态退化、农林渔业对生物多样性的影响、气候变化对生物多样性的影响、保护区的生态代表性和管理有效性、遗传资源和相关传统知识的获取与惠益分享等方面的指标,更加重视生态功能和生物多样性的恢复,重视濒危物种和遗传资源的保护以及外来入侵物种的防控。     

Rethinking the links between systematic studies and ex situ living collections as a contribution to the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation

The Muséum national d’histoire naturelle (MNHN) in Paris holds ca. 70 million specimens. The collections were in need of a strategy to ensure their long-term conservation. We discuss how the Department of Botanical and Zoological Gardens (DJBZ; tropical living collections), and the Department of Systematics and Evolution (DSE; herbarium) contribute to achieving GSPC’s Target 1 (‘a widely accessible working list of known plant species as a step towards a complete world flora’). The DJBZ started encouraging better management of the collections, evolving towards focused reference collections, where all specimens have well-documented collection data. The objective is to link all collections to a scientific referee. This has already been achieved for a number of taxa. The herbarium of the DSE (acronym P) is among the world’s largest (11 million specimens, including 400,000 types). The collection’s heterogeneity impedes access to its data, since P is a mix of recent well-documented collections and historical collections at various curational levels. P is currently under renovation, which started by mounting all ca. 2 million unmounted specimens. The project also includes databasing and imaging of every specimen. The database now holds around 1,000,000 records. For taxonomic studies, living collections are crucial, especially for plants that are not easily preserved as herbarium specimens. Living collections also enable studies impossible to forecast at the time of collecting. Herbaria and living collections should therefore be conceived as interoperable entities requiring common scientific curation. Through a combination of its assets and the expertise of its researchers, the MNHN is well prepared to tackle the new objectives of the GSPC beyond 2010.     

The elimination of human African trypanosomiasis: Achievements in relation to WHO road map targets for 2020

BackgroundIn the 20th century, epidemics of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) ravaged communities in a number of African countries. The latest surge in disease transmission was recorded in the late 1990s, with more than 35,000 cases reported annually in 1997 and 1998. In 2013, after more than a decade of sustained control efforts and steady progress, the World Health Assembly resolved to target the elimination of HAT as a public health problem by 2020. We report here on recent progress towards this goal.Methodology/principal findingsWith 992 and 663 cases reported in 2019 and 2020 respectively, the first global target was amply achieved (i.e. fewer than 2,000 HAT cases/year). Areas at moderate or higher risk of HAT, where more than 1 case/10,000 people/year are reported, shrunk to 120,000 km² for the five-year period 2016–2020. This reduction of 83% from the 2000–2004 baseline (i.e. 709,000 km²) is slightly below the target (i.e. 90% reduction). As a result, the second global target for HAT elimination as a public health problem cannot be considered fully achieved yet. The number of health facilities able to diagnose and treat HAT expanded (+9.6% compared to a 2019 survey), thus reinforcing the capacity for passive detection and improving epidemiological knowledge of the disease. Active surveillance for gambiense HAT was sustained. In particular, 2.8 million people were actively screened in 2019 and 1.6 million in 2020, the decrease in 2020 being mainly caused by COVID-19-related restrictions. Togo and Côte d’Ivoire were the first countries to be validated for achieving elimination of HAT as a public health problem at the national level; applications from three additional countries are under review by the World Health Organization (WHO).Conclusions/significanceThe steady progress towards the elimination of HAT is a testament to the power of multi-stakeholder commitment and coordination. At the end of 2020, the World Health Assembly endorsed a new road map for 2021–2030 that set new bold targets for neglected tropical diseases. While rhodesiense HAT remains among the diseases targeted for elimination as a public health problem, gambiense HAT is targeted for elimination of transmission. The goal for gambiense HAT is expected to be particularly arduous, as it might be hindered by cryptic reservoirs and a number of other challenges (e.g. further integration of HAT surveillance and control into national health systems, availability of skilled health care workers, development of more effective and adapted tools, and funding for and coordination of elimination efforts).     

2020年后生物多样性保护需要建立新的资金机制

《生物多样性公约》第十五次缔约方大会(COP15)将评估全球生物多样性保护已有进展, 审议并通过“2020年后全球生物多样性框架”, 后者是实现2050愿景“与自然和谐相处”的关键, 有助于达成联合国可持续发展的目标。生物多样性资金机制现在是将来也是实施全球生物多样性保护行动计划的重要保证。根据《生物多样性公约》信息交换所的数据, 目前各缔约方每年对本国生物多样性保护的投资额度占其当年国内生产总值(GDP)的比例比较小。中国作为发展中国家, 2015年时生物多样性保护资金投入占GDP比例为0.255%, 在世界各国中处于比较高的水平。近年中国对生物多样性保护的投入连年增加, 2019年时已经达约0.6%。有研究表明, 目前全球每年生物多样性保护资金的缺口至少500亿美元, 未来十年还有更大的资金缺口, 而且当前已有生物多样性资金渠道比较单一, 并存在一些短板, 远远不能满足生物多样性保护行动的要求, 急需建立新的资金机制, 调动更多资源, 推动2030年生物多样性保护任务和目标的实现。《生物多样性公约》的资金机制可以与包括《联合国气候变化框架公约》在内的其他相关环境公约协同增效, 比如基于自然的解决方案将生物多样性保护与气候变化减缓等环境目标联系起来。中国作为COP15的东道国, 有积极协调磋商的责任, 力求在大会上推动形成一个新的资金机制, 即全球生物多样性保护基金, 为“2020年后全球生物多样性框架”的实施保驾护航。新的生物多样性保护资金机制将独立于现有的生物多样性保护资金机制, 具有多样化投资渠道并引入绩效评估机制, 将经费与任务目标关联, 提高资金的使用效率, 支持发展中国家的生物多样性保护行动。     

Development and validation of genetic markers for sex and cannabinoid chemotype in Cannabis sativa L.

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is an emerging dioecious crop grown primarily for grain, fiber, and cannabinoids. There is good evidence for medicinal benefits of the most abundant cannabinoid in hemp, cannabidiol (CBD). For CBD production, female plants producing CBD but not tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are desired. We developed and validated high‐throughput PACE (PCR Allele Competitive Extension) assays for C. sativa plant sex and cannabinoid chemotype. The sex assay was validated across a wide range of germplasm and resolved male plants from female and monoecious plants. The cannabinoid chemotype assay revealed segregation in hemp populations, and resolved plants producing predominantly THC, predominantly CBD, and roughly equal amounts of THC and CBD. Cultivar populations that were thought to be stabilized for CBD production were found to be segregating phenotypically and genotypically. Many plants predominantly producing CBD accumulated more than the current US legal limit of 0.3% THC by dry weight. These assays and data provide potentially useful tools for breeding and early selection of hemp.