Modes of colony foundation by females of different morphotypes in the paper wasps (Hymenoptera,Vespidae, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polistes</Emphasis> Latr.)

Paper wasps of the genus Polistes exhibit wide variability both of the color and size of foundresses, and the mode of colony foundation. The colony foundation and social hierarchy were studied in populations of two Palaearctic species, Polistes dominulus (Christ) and P. nimphus (Christ) (April–May 2006, the Crimean Peninsula, Ukraine), and one Neotropical species, P. lanio (F.) (October 2004–January 2005, Trinidad Island). It was shown that foundresses of various color and size morphs tended to found nests in a peculiar way: singly (haplometrosis), by groups (pleometrosis), or occupying several nests simultaneously (polycaly). The relationship between coloration, size, and mode of colony foundation was species-specific. P. dominulus foundresses with a darker clypeus and a paler mesonotum preferred to found nests alone and had a dominant position in pleometrosis. The haplometrotic P. nimphus foundresses more often displayed darker variants of the clypeus and paler variants of the mesonotum than did foundresses from pleometrotic colonies. P. lanio foundresses from pleometrotic colonies differed from those from polycalic colonies in the coloration variability of the scutum, propodeum, and the 2nd metasomal tergite. The dominant and subordinate P. nimphus and P. lanio foundresses differed in the size of head and wings. The possible significance of the subdivision of foundresses into the “generalists” and “specialists” for the variability structuring in the population is considered.     

Adaptive loss of color polymorphism and character displacements in sympatric <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mnais</Emphasis> damselflies

A geographical survey of two Mnais damselfly species in the Kinki area of Japan showed evidence for character displacements when the two species were found in sympatry. Mnais costalis, a species that has polymorphic male mating types of orange-winged territorial and clear-winged non-territorial morphs (hereafter abbreviated to orange and clear morphs respectively) in allopatry often shifted to having monomorphic orange morphs in sympatry. The mean body size of orange morphs was consistently larger than that of clear morph in allopatry. The mean body size of the sympatric orange morphs was even larger than that of allopatric orange morphs. By contrast, Mnais pruinosa, a species that also has two morphs of large orange and small clear morphs in allopatry, shifted to having monomorphic clear morphs in sympatry. The mean body size of the sympatric clear morphs was smaller than that of allopatric clear morphs. Divergence was also detected in the preference for habitat insolation conditions between sympatric Mnais damselflies. Both species in allopatric regions prefer half-light forest habitats, while in sympatric regions they showed diversified habitat preference: M. costalis preferred sunny habitats while M. pruinosa preferred shady habitats. Multiple character displacements in signal traits and habitat preference emerged in heterogeneous forest light environments are likely to have synergistic effects on the reproductive isolation of the two species.     

A new species of the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphenchelys</Emphasis> (Anguilliformes: Muraenidae) from Thailand

A new species of moray eel, Diaphenchelys dalmatian is described based on five specimens [289.8–503.0 mm total length (TL)] collected from the western coast of peninsular Thailand and the Gulf of Thailand. It can be easily distinguished from Diaphenchelys pelonates McCosker and Randall 2007, another species of the genus Diaphenchelys McCosker and Randall 2007, by its coloration (ground color white with brown dalmatian-like spots vs. brown with pale vermiculate pattern). The present new species also differs from D. pelonates in its longer tail (62.0–64.6% TL vs. 59.6–61.5%), fewer infraorbital pores along upper lip (three vs. four), fewer mandibular pores (five vs. six or seven), and fewer vertebral counts (preanal vertebrae 43–46 vs. 55–58; total 126–131 vs. 153–155). Diaphenchelys is closely similar to the genus Strophidon McClelland 1844 in the shape of neurocranium, the elongate body, low vertical fins, eye location, jaw shape, and presence of inner mandibular teeth. However, both differ in the vertebral counts (126–155 in Diaphenchelys vs. 164–208 in Strophidon) and coloration (prominent pattern vs. uniform).     

Color polymorphism,development, and reproductive diapause of the multicolored Asian ladybird <Emphasis Type="Italic">Harmonia axyridis</Emphasis> (Pallas) (Coleoptera,Coccinellidae) females

Preimaginal development and maturation of females of two laboratory strains originated from two populations of the multicolored Asian ladybird Harmonia axyridis were investigated under laboratory conditions. Females of the autochthonous population from Irkutsk (Siberia) enter diapause under the short day conditions, whereas in females of the invasive population from Sochi (the Caucasus) photoperiodic induction of diapause is weak. The two populations also differ in the proportions of morphs: the population from Sochi is represented only by the morph succinea, whereas the population from Irkutsk is represented by the morphs succinea и axyridis with the predominance of the last one, which in our study was separated into two phenotypes, differed in the degree of melanization. Rearing of adults under the short day (12 h) conditions induced reproductive diapause in females of all the studied morphs and phenotypes of the Irkutsk population, whereas under the long day (18 h) conditions females of the morph succinea showed a slightly lower tendency to diapause. Evidently, the interpopulation differences in the responses regulating the seasonal cycle of the multicolored Asian ladybird are determined by genes that are not involved (or almost not involved) in the determination of the color polymorphism. The interpopulation differences in size and weight were quite substantial, whereas the differences between morphs and phenotypes were statistically significant in only some of our experiments. In combination with the literature data, these results suggest that the genes determining the color polymorphism in H. axyridis may have a pleiotropic effect on other traits including important eco-physiological parameters but this effect is relatively weak and manifests itself only against a particular genetic background and / or under particular environmental conditions.     

Aposematic coloration does not deter corallivory by fish on the coral <Emphasis Type="Italic">Montastraea cavernosa</Emphasis>

Predation on corals by visual predators is a significant source of partial or total mortality on coral reefs, and corals have evolved strategies, including chemical defenses, to deter predation. One mechanism that organisms use to communicate the presence of chemical defenses is aposematic coloration, or the display of bright coloration as a warning to visual predators such as fish. Corals exhibit multiple colors, and it has been hypothesized that one role for this variability in coloration is as an aposematic warning of adverse palatability. Here, we test green and orange color morphs of the Caribbean coral Montastraea cavernosa for the presence of chemical defenses and whether their differences in coloration elicited different feeding responses. While M. cavernosa is chemically defended, there is no difference in feeding deterrence between color morphs; thus, the different color morphs of this coral species do not appear to represent an example of aposematic coloration.     

Mating system in a population of the wasp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polistes dominulus</Emphasis> (Christ) (Hymenoptera,Vespidae)

The specific features of mating females and males of different morphs collected from a population of the wasp P. dominulus in Southern Ukraine were studied. Data analysis of mating individuals in experiments indicated a random mate choice by size and assortative mating by coloration. The most actively copulating males in the experiments had light-colored mesopleuron, sternite, and fore and middle coxae. They were similar in the color pattern and size to resident males, which defend their territories in the habitat. Most P. dominulus females mated only once. In their coloration, those females represented the majority of the individuals in the population. The color variability of the foundresses was shown to change in a cyclic pattern. The possibility that such variability may result from selective or assortative mating is discussed. The color and pattern traits of P. dominulus females and males could serve as markers of their reproductive strategies and their reproductive success on the whole.     

Genome-wide population genetic analysis identifies evolutionary forces establishing continuous population divergence

Elucidating the mechanism shaping the spatial variations of traits has long been a central concern of evolutionary biologists. Geographic clines of allele/morph frequencies along environmental gradients are suggested to be established and maintained by the balancing of two opposing evolutionary forces, namely selection that generates spatial differentiation in morph frequencies, and selection and/or stochastic factors that lead to the coexistence of multiple morphs within a population. Thus, testing for both selection and stochastic factors is necessary for a comprehensive understanding of the mechanism underlying clinal variation in morph/allele frequency in natural populations. Here, I identified the evolutionary forces responsible for clinal variation of color morph frequency in Ischnura senegalensis by comparing the population divergence of putatively neutral loci generated by high-throughput next-generation sequencing (F _STn) with that of the putative color locus (F _STc). No strong correlation was observed between F _STn and F _STc, suggesting that stochastic factors contribute less to color-locus population divergence. F _STc was less than F _STn between populations exposed to similar environmental conditions, but greater than F _STn between populations exposed to different environmental conditions, suggesting that both balancing selection and divergent selection act on the color locus. Therefore, two antagonistic selection factors rather than stochastic and historical factors contribute to establishing the clinal variation of morph frequency in I. senegalensis.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Careproctus iacchus,</Emphasis> a new variegated snailfish (Liparidae) from the Seas of Japan and Okhotsk

A new species of snailfishes, Careproctus iacchus, is described on the basis of three specimens collected from the Seas of Japan and Okhotsk. Among the species of Careproctus, the new species is most similar to Careproctus comus and Careproctus faunus, both known from the Aleutian Islands, in having a variegated body coloration. However, it can be distinguished in having 44–46 dorsal- and 39–40 anal-fin rays (vs. 50–56 and 44–50 in C. comus and 47–51 and 41–45 in C. faunus, respectively), a pectoral fin without a notch (vs. both with a shallow notch), no interradial fenestra between proximal radials two and three in the pectoral girdle (vs. both having a fenestra between proximal radials two and three), a gill slit entirely above the pectoral fin (extending to just above the pectoral fin or to 1–5th ray), a body with many white spots (vs. mottled with red and white), and a large white blotch on cheek (vs. no distinct markings on cheek) when fresh.     

Identification of functional <Emphasis Type="Italic">flavonol synthase</Emphasis> genes from fragrant wild cyclamen (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cyclamen purpurascens</Emphasis>)

Cyclamen purpurascens is considered suitable for horticultural breeding of cyclamens because it has an attractive fragrance that is not found in other wild species. To improve the commercial value of cyclamen flowers, this fragrance has been introduced into ornamental cultivars. However, variation in flower color is somewhat limited in these cultivars, and therefore understanding the genetic networks of flower coloration in C. purpurascens is required. We previously isolated DNA fragments of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes from C. purpurascens, broadening our understanding of the biosynthetic pathway of flavonols, which are co-pigments in flower coloration. In this study, we isolated complete open reading frames of flavonol synthase genes from C. purpurascens (CpurFLS1 and CpurFLS2) and analyzed the in planta functions of the genes by molecular complementation assay using the fls mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana. Expression patterns in several organs of C. purpurascens were also determined. The results strongly suggest that the CpurFLS genes participate in flavonol synthesis. We discuss the involvement of these two FLSs in flower coloration in C. purpurascens.     

Polychromatism of the scale-eaterPerissodus microlepis (Cichlidae,Teleostei) in relation to foraging behavior

Variation in foraging behavior in a population of the scale-eaterPerissodus microlepis was studied on the northwest coast of Lake Tanganyika. Differences in body coloration were found among adult and subadult individuals, which were classified into 4 color morphs designated as Beige, Dark, Grey and Stripe. These color morphs were not strictly related to either sex or size. Each morph spent much time in specific microhabitats and had a major hunting technique that differed from other morphs. Beige morph. which predominated in number, ambushed prey at open surfaces of the substrate, whereas Dark morph used the shade of rock as an ambush site. Grey morph mixed in schools of fisheds hovering in midwater to attack school members, and Stripe morph cruised in the water column and stooped mainly at bottom-fishes. Prey preference differed among the morphs corresponding to their hunting techniques but successful attack rates were similar among them. Observations of marked individuals demonstrated adherence to particular hunting techniques and, in some cases, to particular hunting sites. Intraspecific foraging specialization is discussed in relation to the function of body color and diversity of life styles of prey fishes.     

A SNP in the promoter region of the<Emphasis Type="Italic">VvmybA1</Emphasis> gene is responsible for differences in grape berry color between two related bud sports of grape

The VvmybA1 gene in grape (Vitis vinifera) plays a key role in the biosynthesis of anthocyanin. The grape cultivars, ‘Benitaka’ (red color) and ‘Brazil’ (black color) were the result of a bud mutation. ‘Benetika’ was derived from ‘Italia’ (green color) and ‘Brazil’ was developed from ‘Benetika’. Single sequence repeat (SSR) molecular marker analysis was performed in order to demonstrate that the three cultivars have a common pedigree. A sequence analysis of the promoter region and coding sequence of VvmybA1 revealed a base substitution between ‘Benitaka’ and ‘Brazil’ in the promoter region and a deletion of a large DNA fragment in the promoter region of ‘Italia’. Anthocyanin content and expression of the VvmybA1 and UFGT genes in ‘Brazil’ were higher than in ‘Benitaka’ and barely detectable in ‘Italia’. A transient expression system was used to introduce VvmybA1 driven by the three different promoters present in ‘Italia’, ‘Brazil’, and ‘Benitaka’ into somatic embryos of ‘Centennial Seedless’ (Vitis vinifera L.) by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. This resulted in the production of red cells in the embryos transformed with the constructs of VvmybA1 from ‘Brazil’ and ‘Benitaka’ and no color production in embryos transformed with the VvmybA1 construct from ‘Italia’. In addition, the embryos transformed with the ‘Brazil’ construct had more red color than the embryos transformed with the ‘Benitaka’ construct. These results suggested that a SNP mutation in the promoter region of VvmybA1 in ‘Benitaka’ (red color) was responsible for the color change displayed by ‘Brazil’ (black color).     

Inheritance of glabrous plants in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helianthemum oelandicum</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">oelandicum</Emphasis> and spatial patterns of allele frequencies in local populations

Helianthemum oelandicum var. oelandicum is an endemic taxon on the Baltic island of Öland, SE Sweden. Plants can be classified into two morphs: the bristled morph (with bristles and with or without scattered stellate hairs) and the glabrous morph (without bristles and stellate hairs). In crosses between plants assumed to be homozygous for the trait that characterises the phenotypes of the two morphs, offspring in F1 could not be distinguished from the bristled morph. Segregation in F2 did not deviate from the expected 3:1 ratio (bristled morphs/glabrous morphs), indicating one major gene with a dominant allele for the phenotype of the bristled morph and a recessive allele for the phenotype of the glabrous morph. Besides the Mendelian inheritance of presence/absence of hairs, the density of hairs appeared to be further modified by quantitative genes. The frequency of the recessive allele for the phenotype of the glabrous morph varied among local populations and showed a geographical structure, both on local and regional scales. Possible mechanisms behind the spatial variation in indumentum are discussed.     

Generic names in the Orbiliaceae (Orbiliomycetes) and recommendations on which names should be protected or suppressed

A list of all generic names that have been connected with the Orbiliomycetes is provided. Recommendations are made as to which names should be used in accordance with the rules and the different generic concepts. There is a mismatch in the current generic concepts within Orbiliomycetes regarding the two morphs: a narrow concept is used for the asexual morphs, but a broad concept relies on the sexual morphs. As a consequence, many more generic names have been established for the asexual morphs. A number of previous generic concepts are artificial, since they were based on single characters without molecular support. In order to provide solutions for this mismatch, we present three different generic concepts within the Orbiliomycetes. A broad concept recognizes a large genus Orbilia, with which most of the listed names fall into synonymy, but could be maintained as infrageneric names. Due to the lack of data proving phylogenetic relationships, this broad concept, at present, is the most practicable and recommended one. A moderate concept subdivides Orbilia into several genera, with all nematode-trapping fungi merged in Arthrobotrys. A narrow generic concept accepts genera based on differences in trapping organs, but also subdivides the remaining groups of Orbilia into additional genera. Trapping of invertebrates (zoophagy) is not restricted to Arthrobotrys in a broad sense, but occurs also in the more distant basal genera Hyalorbilia and Lecophagus, which mainly prey on rhizopods and rotifers. Whether these predatory capabilities trace back to a common ancestor is not clear. The following new combinations are proposed: Hyalorbilia oviparasitica, Hyalorbilia quadridens, Hyalorbilia tenuifusaria, and Orbilia fissilis.     

Colour polymorphism in the coconut crab (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Birgus latro</Emphasis>)

Coconut crabs (Birgus latro) are strikingly variable in coloration, but the significance of this colour diversity has never been investigated. We studied coloration, morphology, behaviour and background matching of adult coconut crabs, the world’s largest terrestrial invertebrate, at the western edge of its distribution on Pemba Island, Tanzania. Adults are evidently polymorphic; they come in red and blue types (3:1 ratio on Pemba). The best predictor of colour morph was ventral hue, which, using a discriminant function analysis, correctly classified 96% of the crabs assigned into a predefined colour group. In contrast, principal component analyses suggested a degree of overlapping colour variation. We found no evidence that coloration was sex or size-linked. Males were larger than females and the Pemba adult population appeared male-biased (3:1). We also report that red adults may match the background better than do blue adults on land, whereas blue match better near shore than do red. We postulate that although colour diversity in coconut crabs may be genetically determined, potentially through a crustacyanin gene polymorphism influencing the stability of integument pigmentation, its maintenance may involve several ecological drivers.     

Genetic polymorphisms in the 5'-flanking region of the melanocortin 1 receptor (<Emphasis Type="Italic">MC1R</Emphasis>) gene in foxes

The one of the key pigment genes, the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene, plays a fundamental role in the determination of coat color in a variety of mammals. However, so far there has been no report regarding the genetic variants of the MC1R promoter region and the potential association of its mutations with coat color in foxes. This work aimed to characterize 5'-flanking region of the MC1R gene and its mutations associated with coat color variations in foxes. A total of 76 individuals including 64 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), representing 11 color morphs, and 12 arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus), representing 2 color morphs were studied. To explore the potential cause of coat color variation in foxes, an 1105 bp region located upstream of the MC1R gene coding region was sequenced in 76 foxes. In the present study, a 1267 bp 5'-flanking region of fox MC1R gene was obtained using a PCR-mediated chromosome-walking technique and a 1105 bp segment was sequenced. A total of 8 novel SNPs and an insertion/deletion of 4 nucleotides were detected. The results of mutations analysis indicated that SNPs g.-52G>A, g.-266A>G, g.-297T>C, g.-300G>A and the insertion/deletion spaning positions g.-382~-379 were important in distinguishing V. vulpes and V. lagopus. This work, for the first time, described and confirmed the different variants existed in the 5'-flanking region of MC1R gene between red foxes and arctic foxes. These findings may be extremely helpful for further exploring the alternative splicings or promoter activity of MC1R gene for different coat-colored foxes.     

Review of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chromis xanthura</Emphasis> species group (Perciformes: Pomacentridae), with description of a new species

A taxonomic review of the Chromis xanthura species group, defined here as having 13 dorsal-fin spines, three upper and three lower procurrent caudal-fin rays, two black bands at the preopercular and opercular margins, and a yellow caudal fin when juvenile, resulted in the recognition of three species, Chromis xanthura (Bleeker 1854), Chromis opercularis (Günther 1867), and Chromis anadema sp. nov. Chromis xanthura and C. opercularis, the Pacific and Indian Ocean paired sister species, respectively, are redescribed, with confirmation of two color types of C. xanthura (having a white or black caudal peduncle and fin) as a single species on the basis of morphological and molecular analyses. Chromis anadema sp. nov., described from the oceanic islands of the Pacific Ocean on the basis of 21 specimens, is characterized by having 28–33 gill rakers; longest dorsal-fin soft ray length 20.0–24.7% of standard length (SL); first anal-fin spine length 5.0–6.1% of SL; caudal-fin length 33.4–43.8% of SL; posterior tips of caudal-fin lobes not filamentous in adults; broad black bands along preopercular and opercular margins, sum width of two bands 28.9–38.7% of head length; distal half of soft-rayed portion of dorsal fin transparent in adults; triangular black blotches at upper and lower caudal-fin base in adults; caudal peduncle and fin bluish black in adults; and body grayish, and all fins (except for pectoral fin) bright yellow in juveniles.     

The expression level of anthocyanidin synthase determines the anthocyanin content of crabapple (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Malus</Emphasis> sp.) petals

In addition to contributing to the coloration of plant organs and their defense against herbivores, the consumption of anthocyanins in the human diet has a number of health benefits. Crabapple (Malus sp.) represents a valuable experimental model system to research the mechanisms and regulation of anthocyanin accumulation, in part due to the often vivid and varied petal and leaf coloration that is exhibited by various cultivars. The enzyme anthocyanidin synthase (ANS) plays a pivotal role in anthocyanin biosynthesis; however, the relationship between ANS expression and petal pigmentation has yet to be established in crabapple. To illuminate the mechanism of anthocyanin accumulation in crabapple petals, we evaluated the expression of two crabapple ANS allelic genes (McANS-1 and McANS-2) and the levels of anthocyanins in petals from cultivars with dark red (‘Royalty’) and white (‘Flame’) petals, as well as another (‘Radiant’) whose petals have an intermediate pink color. We determined that the expression of McANS in the three cultivars correlated with the variation of anthocyanin accumulation during different petal developmental stages. Furthermore, transgenic tobacco plants constitutively overexpressing one of the two McANS genes, McANS-1, had showed elevated anthocyanin accumulation and a deeper red coloration in their petals than those from untransformed control lines. In conclusion, we propose that McANS are responsible for anthocyanin accumulation during petal coloration in different crabapple cultivars.     

Four new species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tubeufia</Emphasis> (Tubeufiaceae,Tubeufiales) from Thailand

Tubeufia was named for a sexual morph taxon. However, several asexual morph species have been accommodated in this genus as well. In our study, four new species of Tubeufia, viz. T. filiformis, T. latispora, T. laxispora and T. mackenziei, are described and illustrated. The phylogenetic placement of the new species is confirmed by analysis of combined ITS, LSU and TEF1α sequence data. A key to Tubeufia species is provided and the new species are compared with similar fungal taxa.     

Polymorphism of <Emphasis Type="Italic">yellow</Emphasis> locus in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila melanogaster</Emphasis> mutants from natural populations

We have studied the molecular characteristics of the yellow locus (y; 1–0.0), which determines the body color of phenotypically wild-type and mutant alleles isolated in different years from geographically distant populations of Drosophila melanogaster. According to the Southern blot, data restriction maps of the yellow locus of all examined strains differ from one another, as well as from Oregon stock. FISH analysis shows that, in the neighborhood of the yellow locus in the X chromosome, neither P nor hobo elements are found in y^1–775 stock, while only hobo is found in these region in y^1–859 and y^1–866 stocks, only the P element is found in y⁺sn⁸⁴⁹ stock, and both elements are found in y^1–719 stock. Thus, all yellow mutants studied are of independent origin. Locus yellow located on the end of X chromosome (region 1A5–8 on the cytologic map) carries significantly more transposon than retrotransposon induced mutations compared to the white locus (region 3C2). It is possible that, at the ends of Drosophila melanogaster chromosomes, transposons are more active than retrotransposons.     

Inheritance of a hair character in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helianthemum oelandicum</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">canescens</Emphasis> and allele frequencies in natural populations

Helianthemum oelandicum var. canescens (Hartm.) Fr. is an endemic taxon with a restricted distribution (less than 10 km²) in the southernmost part of the Baltic island of Öland, SE, Sweden. The taxon varies with respect to stellate hairs. Most plants can be classified into two morphs, the stellated morph (with a dense carpet of stellate hairs on the abaxial surface of the leaves) and the bristled morph (without a carpet of stellate hairs). In crosses between plants assumed to be homozygous for the trait that characterises the phenotypes of the two morphs, F1 offspring was indistinguishable from the bristled morph. Segregation in F2 did not deviate from the expected 3:1 ratio (bristled morph/stellated morph), indicating one major gene with a dominant allele for the phenotype of the bristled morph and a recessive allele for the phenotype of the stellated morph. Besides the Mendelian inheritance of the presence/absence of a whitish cover of stellate hairs, the density of hairs appeared to be further modified by quantitative genes. The frequency of the recessive allele for the phenotype of the stellated morph varied among populations and showed a geographical structure. Possible mechanisms behind the spatial variation in indumentum are discussed.