基于核基因和线粒体基因序列的中国Singhardina亚属系统发育（半翅目：叶蝉科：小叶蝉亚科：小叶蝉族）

测定了中国Singhardina亚属15个代表种的核糖体28S基因D2区和线粒体16S基因、COI基因部分序列,分别采用最大简约法、最大似然法和贝叶斯法构建分子系统树。系统发育树显示了相似的拓扑结构,明晰了各分支间的关系。首次探讨了中国Singhardina亚属4个种团间的系统发育关系。结果显示,Singhardina亚属构成了1个独立支系,代表1个单系群。本研究首次提出种团Eurhadina(Singhardina)rubra,并推测该种团可能是Singhardina亚属中最原始的种团。种团Eurhadina(Singhardina)robusta和E.(Singhardina)mamata为姐妹群。种团E.(Singhardina)vittata不能从种团E.(Singhardina)punjabensis中分出得到了分子数据的支持。     

The natural delimitation ofCentaurea (Asteraceae: Cardueae): ITS sequence analysis of theCentaurea jacea group

Taxonomic complexity has hindered partitioning the genusCentaurea into natural subdivisions, even though it has long been recognized as an unwieldy, artificial assemblage. Most of the remaining difficulties center in theCentaurea jacea group, whose taxa share a common advanced type of pollen. Because it comprises half the species of the genusCentaurea, as well as five other disputed genera previously segregated fromCentaurea (Chartolepis, Cheirolepis, Cnicus, Grossheimia andTomanthea), theCentaurea jacea group is a significant taxonomic challenge. Newer molecular approaches are useful for resolving complex relationships because they provide more precise inferences of evolutionary relationships than traditional morphological characters. Sequences of the Internal Transcribed Spacers (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA were analyzed for a comprehensive sample of this group. Results indicated that theCentaurea jacea group is monophyletic and includes the segregated genera, but not two other genera (Oligochaeta andZoegea), whose inclusion in theCentaurea jacea group was doubtful. In addition to pollen morphology, the ITS phylogeny is also supported by karyological evidence and by good correlation with biogeographic distribution of the species. The monophyly of theCentaurea jacea group suggests that a natural delimitation ofCentaurea that minimizes nomenclatural changes is possible, but only if a new type of the genus is designated.     

Phylogeny of the Heterodoxus octoseriatus group (Phthiraptera: Boopiidae) from rock-wallabies (Marsupialia: Petrogale)

The phylogenetic position of the Heterodoxus octoseriatus group is inferred from morphological characters. Two character states support monophyly of this group. Another indicates that its sister-group is a group of 11 other Heterodoxus species (here called the H. calabyi group), that infest at least seven other genera of macropodid marsupials. Fourteen potential apomorphies, associated with the male and female genitalia, are identified. Evident rapid and divergent evolution of the genitalia, however, precludes determination of their polarity by comparison with an out-group (the sister-group). Consequently, phylogeny in the H. octoseriatus group is inferred from the close similarity of morphological characters. In light of the phylogenetic analysis and a phenogram, speciation and the evolution of morphological characters in the H. octoseriatus group is discussed.     

The systematic position of Meruidae (Coleoptera, Adephaga) and the phylogeny of the smaller aquatic adephagan beetle families

A phylogenetic analysis of Adephaga is presented. It is based on 148 morphological characters of adults and larvae and focussed on a placement of the recently described Meruidae, and the genus‐level phylogeny of the smaller aquatic families Gyrinidae, Haliplidae and Noteridae. We found a sister group relationship between Gyrinidae and the remaining adephagan families, as was found in previous studies using morphology. Haliplidae are either the sister group of Dytiscoidea or the sister group of a clade comprising Geadephaga and the dytiscoid families. Trachypachidae was placed as the sister group of the rhysodid‐carabid clade or of Dytiscoidea. The monophyly of Dytiscoidea including Meru is well supported. Autapomorphies are the extensive metathoracic intercoxal septum, the origin of the metafurca from this structure, the loss of Mm. furcacoxalis anterior and posterior, and possibly the presence of an elongated subcubital setal binding patch. Meruidae was placed as sister group of the Noteridae. Synapomorphies are the absence of the transverse ridge of the metaventrite, the fusion of abdominal segments III and IV, the shape of the strongly asymmetric parameres, and the enlargement of antennomeres 5, 7 and 9. The Meru‐noterid clade is the sister group of the remaining Dytiscoidea. The exact position of Aspidytes within this clade remains ambiguous: it is either the sister group of Amphizoidae or the sister group of a clade comprising this family and Hygrobiidae + Dytiscidae. The sister group relationship between Spanglerogyrinae and Gyrininae was strongly supported. The two included genera of Gyrinini form a clade, and Enhydrini are the sister group of a monophylum comprising the remaining Enhydrini and Orectochilini. A branching pattern (Peltodytes + (Brychius + Haliplus)) within Haliplidae was confirmed. Algophilus, Apteraliplus and the Haliplus‐subgenus Liaphlus form a clade. The generic status of the two former taxa is unjustified. The Phreatodytinae are the sister group of Noterinae, and Notomicrus (+ Speonoterus), Hydrocoptus, and Pronoterus branch off successively within this subfamily. The search for the larvae of Meru and a combined analysis of morphological and molecular data should have high priority. © The Willi Hennig Society 2006.     

Systematics of sculpins of the genus Radulinopsis (Scorpaeniformes: Cottidae), with the description of a new species from northern Japan and the Russian Far East

The cottid genus Radulinopsis Soldatov and Lindberg is recognized as a valid taxon including two species, R. derjavini Soldatov and Lindberg and R. taranetzi sp. nov., both distributed in shallow waters around Hokkaido, Japan, and the Russian Far East. Radulinopsis taranetzi differs from R. derjavini in having an almost naked body, teeth on the prevomer, and higher meristic counts. Radulinopsis derjugini Soldatov is synonymized with R. derjavini. A key to species of Radulinopsis and related genera is given. Based on a cladistic analysis of 18 morphological characters, Radulinopsis is the sister group of the Japanese genus Astrocottus, and the monophyletic eastern North Pacific group comprising Radulinus plus Asemichthys is the sister group of the western North Pacific group of Radulinopsis plus Astrocottus. Triglops, having a wide distribution throughout the North Pacific and North Atlantic, is putatively the sister group of a monophyletic group including these four genera. Bolin's genus Radulinus (including Radulinopsis as a subgenus) and Taranetz's subfamily Radulinae (including only Radulinus and Radulinopsis) are polyphyletic and therefore invalid. Received: September 7, 1999 / Revised: April 28, 2000 / Accepted: August 29, 2000     

Expression of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pax group III</Emphasis> genes in the honeybee (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Apis mellifera</Emphasis>)

Pax group III genes are involved in a number of processes during insect segmentation. In Drosophila melanogaster, three genes, paired, gooseberry and gooseberry-neuro, regulate segmental patterning of the epidermis and nervous system. Paired acts as a pair-rule gene and gooseberry as a segment polarity gene. Studies of Pax group III genes in other insects have indicated that their expression is a good marker for understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms of segmentation. We have cloned three Pax group III genes from the honeybee (Apis mellifera) and examined their relationships to other insect Pax group III genes and their expression patterns during honeybee segmentation. The expression pattern of the honeybee homologue of paired is similar to that of paired in Drosophila, but its expression is modulated by anterior–posterior temporal patterning similar to the expression of Pax group III proteins in Tribolium. The expression of the other two Pax group III genes in the honeybee indicates that they also act in segmentation and nervous system development, as do these genes in other insects.     

A Group I Intron in the 18S Ribosomal DNA from the Parasitic Fungus Isaria japonica

The nucleotide sequence of the 18S rDNA coding gene in the ascomycetes parasitic fungus Isaria japonica contains a group I intron with a length of 379 nucleotides. The identification of the DNA sequence as a group I intron is based on its sequence homology to other fungal group I introns. Its group I intron contained the highly conserved sequence elements P, Q, R, and S found in other group I introns. Surprisingly, the intron sequence of I. japonica is more similar to that of Ustilago maydis than to the one found in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. This is in contrast to the sequence identity found on the neighboring rDNA. This is an interesting finding and suggests a horizontal transfer of group I intron sequences. Received: 19 September 1997 / Accepted: 10 September 1998     

Revision of the genus Trogulus Latreille: the morphologically divergent Trogulus torosus species‐group of the Balkan Peninsula (Opiliones: Dyspnoi: Trogulidae)

Within the species‐rich European harvestman genus Trogulus Latreille, 1802, the Balkan Trogulus torosus species‐group as defined by Schönhofer and Martens is revised. The group is remarkable because it includes the world's largest Opiliones species, Trogulus torosus Simon, 1885, and Trogulus ozimeci sp. nov. is the first member of the family showing obvious adaption to subterranean life. According to nuclear 28S and mitochondrial cytochrome b gene data, the T. torosus species‐group and the Trogulus hirtus species‐group form a monophyletic unit. Only the former is treated here as a paraphyletic group. Despite this paraphyly, the T. torosus species‐group members share a number of morphological, morphometric, geographical, and ecological traits and are treated here as a unit for revisional work. Morphometric data are shown to be not only useful for species discrimination but also for species‐group delineation. Within the T. torosus species‐group six species are recognized: Trogulus banaticus Avram, 1971, Trogulus setosissimus Roewer, 1940, and T. torosus are re‐described; Trogulus megaligrava sp. nov. , T. ozimeci sp. nov. , and Trogulus tenuitarsus sp. nov. are described as new. Unusually within Trogulus, strong affiliations with subterranean habitats exist and are discussed. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London     

A Ty1-copia group retrotransposon sequence in a vertebrate.

Summary We have used the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to isolate a sequence characteristic of aTy1-copia group retrotransposon from the genome of the herring (Clupea harengus). This is the firstTy1-copia group retrotransposon sequence described in a vertebrate. Phylogenetic comparison of this sequence with other members of this group of retrotransposons shows that it resembles more closely some Tyl-copia group members fromDrosophila melanogaster than other group members in plants and fungi. These observations provide further evidence that theTy1-copia group LTR retrotransposons span many of the major eukaryote species boundaries, suggesting that horizontal transmission between different species has played a role in the evolution of this retrotransposon group.     

Lygosomine phylogeny and the origins of Australian scincid lizards

Aim Australian scincid lizards represent three distinct groups within the cosmopolitan clade Lygosominae, the Egernia, Eugongylus and Sphenomorphus groups. This paper presents a time‐calibrated phylogeny for Lygosominae that provides the necessary temporal framework for assessing the contributions of immigration from Asia and of Gondwanan inheritance in the derivation of the Australian scincid fauna. Location Australasia, Asia, Africa. Methods Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times were inferred from novel BDNF, c‐mos and PTPN12 sequences (2408 aligned sites). Results Lygosomine monophyly is well supported, and there is strong support for monophyly of the Egernia, Eugongylus and Sphenomorphus groups. A sister‐group relationship of Tribolonotus (distributed in Melanesia and the Papuan Region) and the Egernia group is strongly supported in both Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses. Australian representatives of the Sphenomorphus group compose a significantly supported clade estimated to have originated c. 25 Ma. An age of c. 18 Ma is inferred for a strongly supported clade comprising Australian representatives of the Egernia group; this clade diverged from Corucia zebrata (confined to the Solomon Islands) c. 25 Ma and from Tribolonotus c. 54 Ma. A well‐supported clade including all Australian Eugongylus group taxa sampled is estimated to have arisen c. 20 Ma. Main conclusions The Australian Sphenomorphus group is nested within the more inclusive Sphenomorphus group (distributed primarily in Asia and Australasia), suggesting comparatively recent descent from a colonizing Asian ancestor; the divergence times inferred here indicate that colonization occurred during the mid Cenozoic, subsequent to the rifting of Australia from Antarctica. An Oligocene origin of the extant Eugongylus group fauna of Australasia (the basal members of which are distributed in the Southwest Pacific) indicates that Eugongylus group lygosomines also dispersed to Australia relatively recently. The Egernia group diverged from Tribolonotus in the Early Eocene; however, extant Egernia group lygosomines originated only during the Late Oligocene, implying extensive pruning of stem taxa (i.e. extinction). As a result, inferences of the timing of dispersal into Australia are associated with substantial uncertainty, although independent palaeontological evidence suggests that the Egernia group entered Australia prior to the Oligocene, immediately after (or perhaps before) the separation of Australia and Antarctica.     

Phylogeny of the tribe Empoascini (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Typhlocybinae) based on morphological characteristics,with reclassification of the Empoasca generic group

A morphology‐based phylogenetic analysis of the tribe Empoascini (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Typhlocybinae) is presented for 58 of 83 formerly recognized genera based on 99 morphological characters of adults. The results support excluding the New World Beamerana generic group from Empoascini. The remaining genera of Empoascini were recovered as a monophyletic sister group of Dikraneurini. Previously recognized tribes Jorumini and Helionini are derived from within Empoascini and are considered synonyms of the latter tribe. Three previously recognized informal generic groups, the Empoasca group, Alebroides group and Usharia group were paraphyletic but the Ficiana group was recovered as monophyletic based on five synapomorphies. Genera previously placed in the Alebroides group represent at least six independent lineages, indicating that the hind wing character separating this group from the Empoasca group (CuA and MP veins free) is highly homoplasious. Empoasca (sensu lato) is also paraphyletic. Thus, twelve previously recognized subgenera of Empoasca are elevated to genus status and five species groups of Empoasca from the New World are recognized as separate new genera. Sikkimasca Dworakowska, 1993 is treated as synonym of Marolda Dworakowska, 1977 based on the phylogeny. Biogeographic analysis suggests that Empoascini most likely first evolved in the Oriental region and spread to other biogeographic realms more recently by multiple independent invasions.     

Evolutionary trends of the hairy-faceSaguinus in terms of the dental and cranial morphology

Shape variations in the dentition and the cranium were analyzed for sevenSaguinus forms of the hairy-face tamarin by applying the factor analysis method. The results obtained for the dental and cranial measurements were almost consistent with each other. The magnitude of the difference in shape factors between theS. nigricollis group and theS. midas group is appreciably larger than that between the former group and theS. mystax group. If the ancestral geographic centre of origin is postulated as being within the region which is inhabited by the livingS. nigricollis group, the morphological distances between any pairs of groups correlate well with the geographic distances between them. Concerning the dental and cranial morphologies, the physical changes in the three species group probably took place in two directions; that is, from theS. nigricollis group to theS. mystax group, and from theS. nigricollis group to theS. midas group. The forms belonging to each species group are more closely related to each other, with the exception ofS. imperator in theS. mystax group. The uniqueness ofS. imperator was clearly demonstrated by factor analysis and distance analysis. In theS. mystax group, although still hypothetical,S. imperator may have been related only through the basic ancestral stock toS. labiatus andS. mystax.     

Molecular Phylogenetics of the Peromyscus boylii Species Group (Rodentia: Muridae) Based on Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Sequences

Variation in the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (1143 bp) was examined to estimate the phylogenetic relationships of taxa within the Peromyscus boylii species group. In addition, phylogenetic relationships among the aztecus, boylii, and truei species groups were addressed. Maximum-likelihood, neighbor-joining, and maximum-parsimony (weighted and equally weighted) analyses produced similar topologies with P. boylii, P. beatae, P. simulus, P. stephani, P. madrensis, P. levipes, and three undescribed taxa from western Mexico forming a monophyletic unit. At least two of the undescribed taxa from western Mexico potentially represent species. Members of the P. aztecus species group formed a clade separate from the P. boylii group and should be recognized as a distinct species group. P. sagax, P. polius, and P. pectoralis, formerly placed in the P. boylii species group, generally formed an unresolved polytomy with the P. truei, P. aztecus, and P. boylii species groups. P. attwateri formed a sister taxon relationship with members of the P. truei species group (P. difficilis and P. nasutus) and should be considered a member of this group. Members of the P. truei species group did not form a monophyletic unit, indicating that this species group is not monophyletic and may be composed of two assemblages.     

Functional characterization and phylogenetic analysis of acquired and intrinsic macrolide phosphotransferases in the Bacillus cereus group

The Bacillus cereus group is composed of Gram‐positive spore‐forming bacteria of clinical and ecological importance. More than 200 B. cereus group isolates have been sequenced. However, there are few reports of B. cereus group antibiotic resistance genes. This study identified two functional classes of macrolide phosphotransferases (Mphs) in the B. cereus group. Cluster A Mphs inactivate 14‐ and 15‐membered macrolides while Cluster B Mphs inactivate 14‐, 15‐ and 16‐membered compounds. The genomic region surrounding the Cluster B Mph gene is related to various plasmid sequences, suggesting that this gene is an acquired resistance gene. In contrast, the Cluster A Mph gene is located in a chromosomal region conserved among all B. cereus group isolates, and data indicated that it was acquired early in the evolution of the group. Therefore, the Cluster A gene can be considered an intrinsic resistance gene. However, the gene itself is not present in all strains and our comparative genomics analyses showed that it is exchanged among strains of the B. cereus group by the mean of homologous recombination. These results provide an alternative mechanism to intrinsic resistance.     

Relationships of morphological groups in the northern flicker superspecies complex (Colaptes auratus & C. chrysoides)

Many species complexes have diversified rapidly and recently, resulting in morphologically diverse populations; however, the rapid pace of diversification often prevents identification of clear phylogeographic structure. Recently, the use of large genomic and reduced-representation genomic datasets has improved resolution of the evolutionary histories in such species and allowed identification of lineages on distinct evolutionary trajectories. The northern flicker (Colaptes auratus) and gilded flicker (Colaptes chrysoides) form a polytypic superspecies group with a complex taxonomic history. The superspecies group includes up to 13 described subspecies, which represent slight geographic variation among five main morphological groups: red-shafted flickers of western North America (cafer group), yellow-shafted flickers of eastern North America (auratus group), Cuban flickers of the Caribbean (chrysocaulosus group), gilded flickers of the U.S. south-west and Mexican north-west (chrysoides group), and Guatemalan flickers of Central America (mexicanoides group). These groups are largely differentiable by variation in feather shaft colour, malar colour, throat colour, crown colour, and back barring. Here, using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and hundreds of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), we characterized the genetic relationships and genomic distinctiveness of the five morphological groups. We found the mexicanoides group to be the most genetically distinct in both mtDNA (～1.4% sequence divergence) and large SNP panels. The chrysocaulosus group is differentiated by a single basepair mutation in a small mtDNA fragment. In both mtDNA and SNP panels, there is little genetic distinctiveness between auratus, cafer, and chrysoides morphological groups, with evidence of admixture and a lack of fixed differences.     

Mitochondrial gene rearrangements suggest a new genus in the subfamily Cantharinae (Coleoptera)

The Cephalomalthinus semifumatus species group, referred to as the “semifumatus” group henceforth, is interesting because of its heterogeneous morphology resembling either Cephalomalthinus Pic, 1921 or Rhagonycha Eschscholtz, 1830. To elucidate its phylogenetic status, mitochondrial genomes of four species of the “semifumatus” group, 11 Cephalomalthinus species, and 11 Rhagonycha species were sequenced and examined. All analysed mitogenomes were similar with respect to genome size, nucleotide composition, and AT content. Surprisingly, a rearrangement of the trnW-trnC and trnY genes was detected in the “semifumatus” group, presumably caused by tandem duplication and random loss events. Furthermore, genetic distance analyses showed that the proximity of the “semifumatus” group to Cephalomalthinus and to Rhagonycha was comparable to that between the latter two. Moreover, the produced phylogeny strongly supported the monophyly of the “semifumatus” group, and molecular clock analyses dated its divergence from Cephalomalthinus to 32.52 Ma. Thus, the new genus Amphimorphus gen. nov. is suggested to comprise the “semifumatus” group, in which the observed gene rearrangement was a synapomorphy. Moreover, morphological evidence regarding the unique structure of the aedeagus supported this separation. These results indicate that mitochondrial gene rearrangement provide important phylogenetic implications for revising Cephalomalthinus, a speciose genus that is puzzling in the morphology-based taxonomy.     

Molecular phylogeny of Himalopsyche (Trichoptera,Rhyacophilidae)

Species of the genus Himalopsyche (Trichoptera, Rhyacophilidae) inhabit alpine to montane environments in Central and East Asia and North America. Diversity of the genus is concentrated primarily in the Himalayas and surrounding mountain ranges. Phylogenetic hypotheses have hitherto been proposed based on morphological data. Here, we present the first molecular phylogeny of Himalopsyche based on six gene fragments, using three methods of phylogenetic inference. Based on the phylogenetic analyses, we re‐evaluated species groups suggested by previous authors based on adult male morphology. We found that the previously defined groups are largely supported by molecular evidence as well as larval and adult morphology. However, we modify the species groups so that Himalopsyche phryganea and Himalopsyche lepcha constitute monotypic groups, and so that the tibetana group and anomala group sensu Schmid & Botosaneanu are merged to a single group, here defined as the tibetana group. Thus, we propose that Himalopsyche can be divided into five groups: kuldschensis group, lepcha group, navasi group, phryganea group, and tibetana group. We also provide a biogeographic synthesis of Himalopsyche distributions.     

Mitochondrial divergence suggests unexpected high species diversity in the opsariichthine fishes (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) and the revalidation of Opsariichthys macrolepis

Opsariichthine (sensu Oceanologi Et Limnologia Sinica, 1982, 13, 293–298) is a cyprinid group consisting of five genera and endemic to East Asia. Previous studies suggested that there may be many possible cryptic species in this group, but this has not been confirmed. In this study, using mitochondrial cyt b sequences on 1,388 samples and 739 haplotypes, we showed very high species diversity within this group. The results showed that phylogenetic relationships of the opsariichthine group were as ([Nipponocypris‐Parazacco‐Candidia] + [Zacco + Opsariichthys]), and there were multiple deep lineages within several species, flagging putative cryptic species. When a 3% genetic distance was used as a threshold for species delimitation, 35 haplogroups were found, nine haplogroups in Candidia‐Parazacco‐Nipponocypris group, six haplogroups in the Zacco group, and 20 haplogroups in the Opsariichthys group. We consider all of them to be putative until determination of distinct species based on the tree topology, geographic distributions, or a combination of both. In addition, two kinds of species delimitation tools, ABGD and PTP, were applied to construct molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs). The ABGD method revealed nine MOTUs in Candidia‐Parazacco‐Nipponocypris group, two MOTUs in the Zacco group, and 17 MOTUs in the Opsariichthys group. And the PTP method revealed 10 MOTUs in Candidia‐Parazacco‐Nipponocypris group, 10 MOTUs in the Zacco group, and 29 MOTUs in the Opsariichthys group. Therefore, there should be more species in the opsariichthine group than presently described. Based on the molecular data and morphological characteristics, we proposed Opsariichthys macrolepis as a valid species and described its morphological diagnostic characters.     

Preliminary phylogeny of the genus Copidosoma (Hymenoptera,Encyrtidae), polyembryonic parasitoids of Lepidoptera

The genus Copidosoma (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Encyrtidae) is a diverse group of polyembryonic parasitoids of Lepidoptera, including species that have the potential to control agricultural and forestry pests. Moreover, some species of Copidosoma display polyembryony. Despite their economic and scientific importance, little is known about the phylogeny of Copidosoma and its relations to other groups of Encyrtidae. Here we infer the phylogenetic relationships of this genus from nucleotide sequences of two nuclear (18S and 28S) and one mitochondrial (COI) genes. Forty‐four species of Copidosoma and three species of Copidosomopsis plus two outgroup species are included in Maximum Parsimony and Bayesian analyses. Copidosomopsis syn. n . is proposed as a junior synonym of Copidosoma based on phylogenetic analysis results. Each of nine identical clades, resulting from both analyses, is proposed as informal species group: cervius group (cervius, chalconotum and serricorne), recovered as the basal lineage of Copidosoma; nacoleiae group (nacoleaie, meridionalis and an undescribed species, formerly belonging to the genus Copidosomopsis); boucheanum group (boucheanum, terebrator, peticus, phaloniae, ancharus, tibiale and sosares); noyesi group (noyesi and probably undescribed related species); albipes group (albipes and coimbatorense); varicorne group (including varicorne and subalbicorne in one subclade, and aretas and fuscisquama in the other); thebe group (thebe and probably undescribed related species); exiguum group (exiguum and probably undescribed related species); floridanum group (floridanum, primulum, transversum, truncatellum and agrotis). Host associations of the genus and host specificity of recognized groups are discussed. The current work offers a foundation for a comprehensive phylogeny of Copidosoma and the possibility to reconstruct cophylogeny between Copidosoma and their lepidopteran hosts.