A strategy for the rapid identification of phosphorylation sites in the phosphoproteome

Edman phosphate ((32)P) release sequencing provides a high sensitivity means of identifying phosphorylation sites in proteins that complements mass spectrometry techniques. We have developed a bioinformatic assessment tool, the cleavage of radiolabeled protein (CRP) program, which enables experimental identification of phosphorylation sites via (32)P labeling and Edman degradation of cleaved proteins obtained at femtomole levels. By observing the Edman cycle(s) in which radioactivity is found, candidate phosphorylation sites are identified by determining which residues occur at the observed number of cycles downstream from a peptide cleavage site. In cases where more than one residue could be responsible for the observed radioactivity, additional experiments with cleavage reagents having alternative specificities may resolve the ambiguity. Given a protein sequence and a cleavage site, CRP performs these experiments in silico, identifying resolved sites based on user-supplied experimental data, as well as suggesting combinations of reagents for additional analyses. Analysis of the PhosphoBase protein sequence database suggests that CRP data from two cleavage experiments can be used to identify unambiguously 60% of known phosphorylation sites. Data from additional cleavage experiments may increase the overall coverage to 70% of known sites. By comparing theoretical data obtained from the CRP program with (32)P release data obtained from an Edman sequencer, a known phosphorylation site was identified unambiguously and correctly. In addition, our results show that in vivo phosphorylation sites can be determined routinely by differential proteolysis analysis and Edman cycling with less than 1 fmol of protein and 1000 cpm.     

Phosphorylation sites of bovine brain myelin basic protein phosphorylated with Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase from rat brain

The phosphorylation sites of myelin basic protein from bovine brain were determined after phosphorylation with Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase. Four phosphorylated peptides were selectively and rapidly separated by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Partial sequencing of the phosphorylated peptides by automated Edman degradation revealed that Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase phosphorylated serine-16, serine-70, and threonine-95 specifically, as well as serine-115, which is located on the experimental allergic encephalitogenic determinant of the protein. Of the four amino acid sequences determined, two sequences surrounding phosphorylated amino acids, -Lys-Tyr-Leu-Ala-Ser(P)16-Ala- and -Arg-Phe-Ser(P)115-Trp-Gly-, have both sides of each phosphoserine residue occupied by hydrophobic amino acids, and a basic amino acid, arginine or lysine, is located at the position 2 or 4 residues amino-terminal to the phosphoserine residue. In contrast, the two other sequences surrounding phosphorylated amino acids, -Tyr-Gly-Ser(P)70-Leu-Pro-Glu-Lys- and -Ile-Val-Thr(P)95-Pro-Arg-, have a basic amino acid at the position 2 or 4 residues carboxyl-terminal to the phosphoamino acid residue.     

Identification of Ser-55 as a major protein kinase A phosphorylation site on the 70-kDa subunit of neurofilaments. Early turnover during axonal transport.

The 70-kDa neurofilament protein subunit (NF-L) is phosphorylated in vivo on at least three sites (L1 to L3) (Sihag, R. K. and Nixon, R. A. (1989) J. Biol. Chem. 264, 457-464). The turnover of phosphate groups on NF-L during axonal transport was determined after the neurofilaments in retinal ganglion cells were phosphorylated in vivo by injecting mice intravitreally with [32P]orthophosphate. Two-dimensional phosphopeptide maps of NF-L from optic axons of mice 10 to 90 h after injection showed that radiolabel decreased faster from peptides L2 and L3 than from L1 as neurofilaments were transported. To identify phosphorylation sites on peptide L2, axonal cytoskeletons were phosphorylated by protein kinase A in the presence of heparin. After the isolated NF-L subunits were digested with alpha-chymotrypsin, 32P-peptides were separated by high performance liquid chromatography on a reverse-phase C8 column. Two-dimensional peptide mapping showed that the alpha-chymotrypsin 32P-peptide accepting most of the phosphates from protein kinase A migrated identically with the in vivo-labeled phosphopeptide L2. The sequence of this peptide (S-V-R-R-S-Y) analyzed by automated Edman degradation corresponded to amino acid residues 51-56 of the NF-L sequence. A synthetic 13-mer (S-L-S-V-R-R-S-Y-S-S-S-S-G) corresponding to amino acid residues 49-61 of NF-L was also phosphorylated by protein kinase A. alpha-Chymotryptic digestion of the 13-mer generated a peptide which contained most of the phosphates and co-migrated with the phosphopeptide L2 on two-dimensional phosphopeptide maps. Edman degradation of the phosphorylated 13-mer identified serine residue 55 which is located within a consensus phosphorylation sequence for protein kinase A as the major site of phosphorylation. Since protein kinase A-mediated phosphorylation influences intermediate filament assembly/disassembly in vitro, we propose that the phosphopeptide L2 region is a neurofilament-assembly domain and that the cycle of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of Ser-55 on NF-L, which occurs relatively early after subunit synthesis in vivo, regulaaes a step in neurofilament assembly or initial interactions during axonal transport.     

Liver isozyme of rabbit glycogen synthase. Amino acid sequences surrounding phosphorylation sites recognized by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase

Glycogen synthase, the rate-limiting enzyme in glycogen biosynthesis, has been postulated to exist as isozymes in rabbit liver and muscle (Camici, M., Ahmad, Z., DePaoli-Roach, A. A., and Roach, P. J. (1984) J. Biol. Chem. 259, 2466-2473). Both isozymes share a number of properties including multiple phosphorylation of the enzyme subunit. In the present study, we determined the amino acid sequences surrounding phosphorylation sites in the rabbit liver isozyme recognized by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. Two dominant phosphopeptides (P-1 and P-2) were generated from tryptic digestion. Amino acid sequences of the purified peptides were determined by automated Edman degradation using a gas-phase sequenator. The locations of phosphorylated residues were identified by measuring 32Pi release during Edman degradation cycles. The NH2-terminal sequence of peptide P-1 is S-L-S(P)-V-T-S-L-G-G-L-P-Q-W-E-V-E-E-L-P-V-D-D-L-L-L-P-E-V. This sequence exhibits a strong homology to the site 2 region in the NH2 terminus of the muscle isozyme. The NH2-terminal sequence of peptide P-2 is M-Y-P-R-P-S(P)-S(P)-V-P-P-S-P-L-G-S-Q-A. This sequence shows strong homology to the site 3 region in the COOH terminus of the muscle isozyme. However, some interesting sequence differences were revealed in this region. For example, substitution of serine for alanine at position 6 of peptide P-2 created a new phosphorylation site for cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. Phosphorylation of the proline/serine-rich site 3 region correlated with inactivation of the liver isozyme and suggests an important role for this segment of the molecule in the regulation of glycogen synthase. No phosphorylation sites corresponding to sites 1a and 1b of the muscle isozyme were detected. In addition, the results provide definitive chemical proof that glycogen synthase from rabbit liver and muscle are isozymes encoded by distinct messages.     

Phosphorylation of DARPP-32, a dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein, by casein kinase II

DARPP-32 (dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphorprotein, Mr = 32,000 as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) is an inhibitor of protein phosphatase-1 and is enriched in dopaminoceptive neurons possessing the D1 dopamine receptor. Purified bovine DARPP-32 was phosphorylated in vitro by casein kinase II to a stoichiometry greater than 2 mol of phosphate/mol of protein whereas two structurally and functionally related proteins, protein phosphatase inhibitor-1 and G-substrate, were poor substrates for this enzyme. Sequencing of chymotryptic and thermolytic phosphopeptides from bovine DARPP-32 phosphorylated by casein kinase II suggested that the main phosphorylated residues were Ser45 and Ser102. In the case of rat DARPP-32, the identification of these phosphorylation sites was confirmed by manual Edman degradation. The phosphorylated residues are located NH2-terminal to acidic amino acid residues, a characteristic of casein kinase II phosphorylation sites. Casein kinase II phosphorylated DARPP-32 with an apparent Km value of 3.4 microM and a kcat value of 0.32 s-1. The kcat value for phosphorylation of Ser102 was 5-6 times greater than that for Ser45. Studies employing synthetic peptides encompassing each phosphorylation site confirmed this difference between the kcat values for phosphorylation of the two sites. In slices of rat caudate-putamen prelabeled with [32P]phosphate, DARPP-32 was phosphorylated on seryl residues under basal conditions. Comparison of thermolytic phosphopeptide maps and determination of the phosphorylated residue by manual Edman degradation identified the main phosphorylation site in intact cells as Ser102. In vitro, DARPP-32 phosphorylated by casein kinase II was dephosphorylated by protein phosphatases-1 and -2A. Phosphorylation by casein kinase II did not affect the potency of DARPP-32 as an inhibitor of protein phosphatase-1, which depended only on phosphorylation of Thr34 by cAMP-dependent protein kinase. However, phosphorylation of DARPP-32 by casein kinase II facilitated phosphorylation of Thr34 by cAMP-dependent protein kinase with a 2.2-fold increase in the Vmax and a 1.4-fold increase in the apparent Km. Phosphorylation of DARPP-32 by casein kinase II in intact cells may therefore modulate its phosphorylation in response to increased levels of cAMP.     

糖原合成酶激酶-3对τ蛋白磷酸化作用的研究

糖原合成酶激酶 ３（ Ｇ Ｓ Ｋ ３）在 ３０℃与 τ蛋白保温 ４ ｈ 可催化 １７±０４ ｍ ｏｌ磷酸参入 １ ｍ ｏｌτ蛋白 将磷酸化的 τ蛋白经胰蛋白酶消化, Ｆｅ Ｃｌ３ 亲和柱分离及 Ｃ１８反相高压液相层析纯化后,再用高压电泳,手工 Ｅｄｍ ａｎ 降解及自动氨基酸序列分析等检测技术,对其磷酸化位点进行鉴定 结果发现： Ｇ Ｓ Ｋ ３ 可使 τ蛋白 Ｔｈｒ １８１, Ｓｅｒ １８４, Ｓｅｒ ２６２, Ｓｅｒ ３５６ 和 Ｓｅｒ ４００ 发生磷酸化 其中 Ｓｅｒ ２６２ 和 Ｓｅｒ ４００ 为 Ａｌｚｈｅｉｍ ｅｒ 病（ Ａ Ｄ）τ蛋白的异常磷酸化位点根据上述磷酸化作用仅轻度抑制τ蛋白生物学活性,推测： Ａ Ｄ τ蛋白 Ｓｅｒ ２６２ 和 Ｓｅｒ ４００ 的磷酸化可能不是决定其生物功能的关键性位点,单纯 Ｇ Ｓ Ｋ ３ 不能复制 Ａ Ｄ 样 τ蛋白的病理改变      

Phosphorylation of smooth muscle myosin light chain kinase by Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II: comparative study of the phosphorylation sites

Smooth muscle myosin light chain kinase (MLC-kinase) was rapidly phosphorylated in vitro by the autophosphorylated form of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaM-kinase II) to a molar stoichiometry of 2.77 +/- 0.15 associated with a threefold increase in the concentration of calmodulin (CaM) required for half-maximal activation of MLC-kinase. Binding of CaM to MLC-kinase markedly reduced the phosphorylation stoichiometry to 0.21 +/- 0.05 and almost completely inhibited phosphorylation of sites in two peptides (32P-peptides P1 and P2) with reduced phosphorylation of peptide P3. By analogy, cAMP-dependent protein kinase phosphorylated MLC-kinase to a stoichiometry of 3.0 or greater in the absence of CaM with about a threefold decrease in the apparent affinity of MLC-kinase for CaM. Binding of CaM to MLC-kinase inhibited the phosphorylation to 0.84 +/- 0.13. Complete tryptic digests contained two major 32P-peptides as reported previously. One of the peptides, whose phosphorylation was inhibited in the presence of excess calmodulin, appeared to be the same as P2. Automated Edman sequence analysis suggested that both CaM-kinase II and cAMP-dependent protein kinase phosphorylated this peptide at the second of the two adjacent serine residues located at the C-terminal boundary of the CaM-binding domain. However, the other peptide phosphorylated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase, regardless of whether CaM was bound, was different from P1 and P3. Thus, MLC-kinase has a regulatory phosphorylation site(s) that is phosphorylated by the autophosphorylated form of CaM-kinase II and is blocked by Ca2+/CaM-binding.     

Protein Kinase FA/Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 Predominantly Phosphorylates the In Vivo Site Thr97-Pro in Brain Myelin Basic Protein: Evidence for Thr-Pro and Ser-Arg-X-X-Ser as Consensus Sequence Motifs

Abstract: In a previous study, protein kinase F_A/glycogen synthase kinase-3 ( F_A/GSK-3 ) was identified as a myelin basic protein (MBP) kinase associated with intact brain myelin. In this report, the phosphorylation sites of MBP by kinase F_A/GSk-3 were further determined by two-dimensional electrophoresis/TLC, phosphoamino acid analysis, tryptic peptide mapping, Edman degradation, and direct sequencing. Kinase F_A/GSK-3 phosphorylates MBP on both threonine and serine residues. Three tryptic phosphopeptide peaks were resolved by C₁₈ reverse-phase HPLC. Sequential manual Edman degradation together with direct sequence analysis revealed that T(p)PPPSQGK is the phosphorylation site sequence for the first major phosphopeptide peak. When mapping with the bovine brain MBP sequence, we finally demonstrate Thr⁹⁷-Pro, one of the in vivo phosphorylation sites in MBP, as the major site phosphorylated by kinase F_A/GSK-3, implicating a physiologically relevant role of F_A/GSK-3 in the regulation of brain myelin function. By using the same approach, we also identified NIVT⁹⁴(p)PR as the phosphorylation site sequence in the second major tryptic phosphopeptide derived from [³²P]MBP phosphorylated by kinase F_A/GSK-3, further indicating that kinase F_A/GSK-3 represents a Thr-Pro motif-directed MBP kinase involved in the phosphorylation of brain myelin.     

Phosphorylation of serine-15 of maize leaf sucrose synthase. Occurrence in vivo and possible regulatory significance.

Experiments were conducted to determine whether sucrose synthase (SuSy) was phosphorylated in the elongation zone of maize (Zea mays L.) leaves. The approximately 90-kD subunit of SuSy was 32P-labeled on seryl residue(s) when excised shoots were fed [32P]orthophosphate. Both isoforms of SuSy (the SS1 and SS2 proteins) were phosphorylated in vivo, and tryptic peptide-mapping analysis suggested a single, similar phosphorylation site in both proteins. A combination of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry and automated Edman sequencing analysis unequivocally identified the phosphorylation site in the maize SS2 protein as serine-15. This site was phosphorylated in vitro by endogenous protein kinase(s) in a strictly Ca(2+)-dependent manner. A synthetic peptide, based on the phosphorylation site sequence, was used to identify and partially purify an endogenous Ca(2+)-dependent protein kinase(s) from the maize leaf elongation zone and expanding spinach leaves. Phosphorylation of SuSy in vitro selectively activates the cleavage reaction by increasing the apparent affinity of the enzyme for sucrose and UDP, suggesting that phosphorylation may be of regulatory significance. Conservation of the phosphorylation site, and the sequences surrounding it, among plant species suggests that phosphorylation of SuSy may be widespread, if not universal, in plants.     

A new strategy for primary structure determination of proteins: application to bovine beta-casein

A new approach has been developed for sequencing proteins. A radioactive label is attached specifically to the C-terminus of the protein. The labelled molecule is subjected to varying proteolysis conditions. From the electrophoretic patterns (SDS-PAGE) of the hydrolysates, appropriate cleavage conditions are selected, giving labelled peptides of different lengths which are purified. The labelled peptides are sequenced in order of increasing size (from 1 to n), peptide (i) being sequenced until the N-terminal sequence of peptide (i-1) is encountered. This approach allows the determination of a complete protein sequence with a minimal number of Edman cycles. The method was successfully applied to bovine beta-casein (209 residues) which was completely resequenced with only 239 Edman cycles.     

Determination of the sites of cAMP-dependent phosphorylation on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is a substrate for cAMP-dependent protein kinase both in vitro and in vivo. Recently, it has been demonstrated that phosphorylation of the nicotinic receptor by this kinase increases its rate of rapid desensitization. We now report the identification of the cAMP-dependent phosphorylation sites on the gamma and delta subunits. Two-dimensional phosphopeptide mapping of the phosphorylated gamma and delta subunits, after limit proteolysis with thermolysin, indicated that each subunit is phosphorylated on a single site. Phosphoamino acid analysis of the 32P-labeled subunits demonstrates that phosphorylation had occurred exclusively on serine residues. Purified phosphorylated subunits were cleaved with cyanogen bromide and the resultant phosphopeptides were purified by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography. Shorter phosphopeptides, obtained by secondary digestion with trypsin, were purified and subjected to both automated gas-phase sequencing and manual Edman degradation. The results demonstrate that the gamma subunit was phosphorylated at Ser-353, contained within the sequence Arg-Arg-Ser(P)-Ser-Phe-Ile and that the delta subunit was phosphorylated at Ser-361, contained within the sequence Arg-Ser-Ser(P)-Ser-Val-Gay-Tyr-Ser-Lys. Determination of the sites phosphorylated within the structure of the gamma and delta subunits should contribute to the molecular characterization of the regulation of desensitization of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor by protein phosphorylation.     

Streptococcal phosphoenolpyruvate-sugar phosphotransferase system: amino acid sequence and site of ATP-dependent phosphorylation of HPr

The amino acid sequence of histidine-containing protein (HPr) from Streptococcus faecalis has been determined by direct Edman degradation of intact HPr and by amino acid sequence analysis of tryptic peptides, V8 proteolytic peptides, thermolytic peptides, and cyanogen bromide cleavage products. HPr from S. faecalis was found to contain 89 amino acid residues, corresponding to a molecular weight of 9438. The amino acid sequence of HPr from S. faecalis shows extended homology to the primary structure of HPr proteins from other bacteria. Besides the phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phosphorylation of a histidyl residue in HPr, catalyzed by enzyme I of the bacterial phosphotransferase system, HPr was also found to be phosphorylated at a seryl residue in an ATP-dependent protein kinase catalyzed reaction [Deutscher, J., & Saier, M. H., Jr. (1983) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 80, 6790-6794]. The site of ATP-dependent phosphorylation in HPr of S. faecalis has now been determined. [32P]P-Ser-HPr was digested with three different proteases, and in each case, a single labeled peptide was isolated. Following digestion with subtilisin, we obtained a peptide with the sequence -(P)Ser-Ile-Met-. Using chymotrypsin, we isolated a peptide with the sequence -Ser-Val-Asn-Leu-Lys-(P)Ser-Ile-Met-Gly-Val-Met-. The longest labeled peptide was obtained with V8 staphylococcal protease. According to amino acid analysis, this peptide contained 36 out of the 89 amino acid residues of HPr. The following sequence of 12 amino acid residues of the V8 peptide was determined: -Tyr-Lys-Gly-Lys-Ser-Val-Asn-Leu-Lys-(P)Ser-Ile-Met-.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Substrate phosphorylation catalyzed by the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase. Kinetic correlation to autophosphorylation of specific sites in the beta subunit

The kinetics of insulin-stimulated autophosphorylation of specific tyrosines in the beta subunit of the mouse insulin receptor and activation of receptor kinase-catalyzed phosphorylation of a model substrate were compared. The deduced amino acid sequence of the mouse proreceptor was determined to locate tyrosine-containing tryptic peptides. Receptor was first incubated with unlabeled ATP to occupy nonrelevant autophosphorylation sites, after which [32P]autophosphorylation at relevant sites and attendant activation of substrate phosphorylation were initiated with [gamma-32P]ATP and insulin. Activation of substrate phosphorylation underwent an initial lag of 10-20 s during which there was substantial 32P-autophosphorylation of tryptic phosphopeptides p2 and p3, but not p1. Following the lag, incorporation of 32P into p1 and the activation of substrate phosphorylation increased abruptly and exhibited identical kinetics. The addition of substrate to the receptor prior to ATP inhibits insulin-stimulated autophosphorylation, and consequently substrate phosphorylation. Insulin-stimulated autophosphorylation of the receptor in the presence of substrate inhibited primarily the incorporation of 32P into p1 and drastically inhibited substrate phosphorylation. From Edman radiosequencing of 32P-labeled p1, p2, and p3 and the amino acid sequence of the mouse receptor, the location of each phosphopeptide within the beta subunit was determined. Further characterization of these phosphopeptides revealed that p1 and p2 represent the triply and doubly phosphorylated forms, respectively, of the region within the tyrosine kinase domain containing tyrosines 1148, 1152, and 1153. The doubly phosphorylated forms contain phosphotyrosines either at positions 1148 and 1152/1153 or positions 1152 and 1153. These results indicate that insulin stimulates sequential autophosphorylation of tyrosines 1148, 1152 and 1153, and that the transition from the doubly to the triply phosphorylated forms is primarily responsible for the activation of substrate phosphorylation.     

Nuclear transition protein 1 from ram elongating spermatids. Mass spectrometric characterization, primary structure and phosphorylation sites of two variants

The ram transition protein 1 (TP1) is present in spermatid cell nuclei in the nonphosphorylated, monophosphorylated and diphosphorylated forms. Its primary structure was determined by automated Edman degradation of S-carboxamidomethylated protein and of peptides generated by cleavage with thermolysin and endoproteinase Lys-C. The ram TP1 is a small basic protein of 54 residues and structurally very close to other mammalian TP1. The mass spectrometric data obtained from the protein and its fragments reveal that ram TP1 is indeed a mixture (approximately 5:1) of two structural variants (Mr 6346 and 6300). These variants differ only by the nature of the residue at position 27 (Cys in the major variant and Gly in the minor variant). The study of phosphorylation sites has shown that four different serine residues could be phosphorylated in the monophosphorylated TP1, at positions 8, 35, 36 or 39. From previous physical studies, it has been postulated that the Tyr32 surrounded by two highly conserved basic clusters was responsible for the destabilization of chromatin by intercalation of its phenol ring between the bases of double-stranded DNA. The presence of three phosphorylatable serine residues in the very conserved sequence 29-42 is another argument for the involvement of this region in the interaction with DNA.     

Phosphorylation of connexin 32, a hepatocyte gap-junction protein, by cAMP-dependent protein kinase, protein kinase C and Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II

Phosphorylation of connexin 32, the major liver gap-junction protein, was studied in purified liver gap junctions and in hepatocytes. In isolated gap junctions, connexin 32 was phosphorylated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase (cAMP-PK), by protein kinase C (PKC) and by Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (Ca2+/CaM-PK II). Connexin 26 was not phosphorylated by these three protein kinases. Phosphopeptide mapping of connexin 32 demonstrated that cAMP-PK and PKC primarily phosphorylated a seryl residue in a peptide termed peptide 1. PKC also phosphorylated seryl residues in additional peptides. CA2+/CaM-PK II phosphorylated serine and to a lesser extent, threonine, at sites different from those phosphorylated by the other two protein kinases. A synthetic peptide PSRKGSGFGHRL-amine (residues 228-239 based on the deduced amino acid sequence of rat connexin 32) was phosphorylated by cAMP-PK and by PKC, with kinetic properties being similar to those for other physiological substrates phosphorylated by these enzymes. Ca2+/CaM-PK II did not phosphorylate the peptide. Phosphopeptide mapping and amino acid sequencing of the phosphorylated synthetic peptide indicated that Ser233 of connexin 32 was present in peptide 1 and was phosphorylated by cAMP-PK or by PKC. In hepatocytes labeled with [32P]orthophosphoric acid, treatment with forskolin or 20-deoxy-20-oxophorbol 12,13-dibutyrate (PDBt) resulted in increased 32P-incorporation into connexin 32. Phosphopeptide mapping and phosphoamino acid analysis showed that a seryl residue in peptide 1 was most prominently phosphorylated under basal conditions. Treatment with forskolin or PDBt stimulated the phosphorylation of peptide 1. PDBt treatment also increased the phosphorylation of seryl residues in several other peptides. PDBt did not affect the cAMP-PK activity in hepatocytes. It has previously been shown that phorbol ester reduces dye coupling in several cell types, however in rat hepatocytes, dye coupling was not reduced by treatment with PDBt. Thus, activation of PKC may have differential effects on junctional permeability in different cell types; one source of this variability may be differences in the sites of phosphorylation in different gap-junction proteins.     

Riboflavin synthases of Bacillus subtilis. Purification and amino acid sequence of the alpha subunit

Bacillus subtilis has two different riboflavin synthases characterized by the subunit structures alpha3 (light enzyme) and alpha3beta60 (heavy enzyme). The light enzyme was purified by a novel procedure with increased yield and excellent reproducibility. The proposed trimer structure was confirmed by cross-linking experiments with dimethyl suberimidate. Fragments of alpha subunits were prepared by cleavage with cyanogen bromide, trypsin, protease Lys-C, and Staphylococcus aureus protease V8, respectively. Sequences were determined by automated liquid or gas phase Edman degradation. The complete sequence (202 amino acids) was established by direct sequencing of the N terminus and sequencing of overlapping peptides. The sequence shows marked internal homology between the NH2-terminal and COOH-terminal half encompassing 26 identical positions and 23 conservative replacements. This suggests that the protomer forms two structurally similar domains. Since it is known that the enzyme has two binding sites per subunit for the substrate 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine, it appears likely that each of the homologous protein domains provides one binding site. The stereochemical features of the enzyme mechanism and the structural relation of the alpha trimer to the beta60 capsid of heavy riboflavin synthase suggest that the six domains corresponding to the alpha subunit trimer are related by pseudo 32 symmetry.     

Analysis of P-glycoprotein phosphorylation in HL60 cells isolated for resistance to vincristine.

In the present study we have analyzed the involvement of phosphorylation in the function of P-glycoprotein and have also examined sites of phosphorylation along the P-glycoprotein polypeptide chain. The results show that in HL60 cells isolated for resistance to vincristine the protein kinase inhibitor staurosporine induces a major inhibition in the phosphorylation of P-glycoprotein. Further studies show that under the same conditions in which staurosporine inhibits P-glycoprotein phosphorylation there is a concomitant increase in cellular drug accumulation and a major inhibition in drug efflux. Additional studies using pulse-chase experiments show that the P-glycoprotein phosphate groups are metabolically active and that the protein undergoes rapid cycles of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation in the cell. Structural analyses demonstrate that cleavage of 32P-labeled P-glycoprotein at Asp-Pro linkages with formic acid results in the formation of a major phosphorylated peptide of 35 kDa and a minor peptide of 42 kDa. Western blot analysis using site-specific anti-sera against P-glycoprotein suggests that P35 represents a phosphorylated fragment containing P-glycoprotein amino acids 446-744. Analysis of tryptic peptides using site-specific antisera identifies a second major phosphorylated region of P-glycoprotein which contains amino acids 745-1088. These studies thus suggest that phosphorylation plays an important role in the biological activity of P-glycoprotein. The results also indicate that two adjacent internal regions are highly phosphorylated in the P-glycoprotein molecule.     

Phosphorylation site analysis of Semliki forest virus nonstructural protein 3

Nonstructural protein 3 (Nsp3) is an essential subunit of the alphavirus RNA replication complex, although its specific function(s) has yet to be well defined. Previously, it has been shown that Semliki Forest virus Nsp3 (482 amino acids) is a phosphoprotein, and, in the present study, we have mapped its major phosphorylation sites. Mass spectrometric methods utilized included precursor ion scanning, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry used in conjunction with on-target alkaline phosphatase digestions, and tandem mass spectrometry. Two-dimensional peptide mapping was applied to separate tryptic (32)P-labeled phosphopeptides of Nsp3. Radiolabeled peptides were then subjected to Edman sequencing, and phosphoamino acid analysis. In addition, radiolabeled Nsp3 was cleaved successively with cyanogen bromide and trypsin, and microscale iron-chelate affinity chromatography was used to enrich phosphopeptides. By combining these methods, we showed that Nsp3 is phosphorylated on serine residues 320, 327, 332, 335, 356, 359, 362, and 367, and is heavily phosphorylated on peptide Gly(338)-Lys(415), which carries 7-12 phosphates distributed over its 13 potential phosphorylation sites. These analytical findings were corroborated by constructing a Nsp3 derivative devoid of phosphorylation. The results represent the first determination of phosphorylation sites of an alphavirus nonstructural protein, but the approach can be utilized in phosphoprotein analysis in general.     

The amino acid sequence of Escherichia coli cyanase

The amino acid sequence of the enzyme cyanase (cyanate hydrolase) from Escherichia coli has been determined by automatic Edman degradation of the intact protein and of its component peptides. The primary peptides used in the sequencing were produced by cyanogen bromide cleavage at the methionine residues, yielding 4 peptides plus free homoserine from the NH2-terminal methionine, and by trypsin cleavage at the 7 arginine residues after acetylation of the lysines. Secondary peptides required for overlaps and COOH-terminal sequences were produced by chymotrypsin or clostripain cleavage of some of the larger peptides. The complete sequence of the cyanase subunit consists of 156 amino acid residues (Mr 16,350). Based on the observation that the cysteine-containing peptide is obtained as a disulfide-linked dimer, it is proposed that the covalent structure of cyanase is made up of two subunits linked by a disulfide bond between the single cystine residue in each subunit. The native enzyme (Mr 150,000) then appears to be a complex of four or five such subunit dimers.     

Human beta-casein. Amino acid sequence and identification of phosphorylation sites

The primary structure of human beta-casein has been determined by automated Edman degradation of the intact protein and of peptides derived therefrom by hydrolysis with trypsin and by chemical cleavage with cyanogen bromide. For each form of this multiphosphorylated protein (0-5 P/molecule), phosphorylated sites at specific seryl and threonyl residues have been identified. These are located near the amino terminus, within the first 10 residues of this 212-amino acid molecule. Sequence comparison of human beta-casein with the bovine and ovine proteins reveals 50% identity and a 10-residue shifted alignment relationship. Locations of prolyl and charged residues are generally conserved for the three homologues. The sequence data indicate the existence of genetic polymorphism involving uncharged residues in human beta-casein.