Molluscan assemblages on coral reefs and associated hard substrata in the northern Red Sea

Information on spatial variability and distribution patterns of organisms in coral reef environments is necessary to evaluate the increasing anthropogenic disturbance of marine environments (Richmond 1993; Wilkinson 1993; Dayton 1994). Therefore different types of subtidal, reef-associated hard substrata (reef flats, reef slopes, coral carpets, coral patches, rock grounds), each with different coral associations, were investigated to determine the distribution pattern of molluscs and their life habits (feeding strategies and substrate relations). The molluscs were strongly dominated by taxa with distinct relations to corals, and five assemblages were differentiated. The Dendropoma maxima assemblage on reef flats is a discrete entity, strongly dominated by this encrusting and suspension-feeding gastropod. All other assemblages are arranged along a substrate gradient of changing coral associations and potential molluscan habitats. The Coralliophila neritoidea-Barbatia foliata assemblage depends on the presence of Porites and shows a dominance of gastropods feeding on corals and of bivalves associated with living corals. The Chamoidea-Cerithium spp. assemblage on rock grounds is strongly dominated by encrusting bivalves. The Drupella cornus-Pteriidae assemblage occurs on Millepora-Acropora reef slopes and is strongly dominated by bivalves associated with living corals. The Barbatia setigera-Ctenoides annulata assemblage includes a broad variety of taxa, molluscan life habits and bottom types, but occurs mainly on faviid carpets and is transitional among the other three assemblages. A predicted degradation of coral coverage to rock bottoms due to increasing eutrophication and physical damage in the study area (Riegl and Piller 2000) will result in a loss of coral-associated molluscs in favor of bivalve crevice dwellers in dead coral heads and of encrusters on dead hard substrata.     

Upper Pleistocene cold-water corals from the Inner Sea of the Maldives: taphonomy and environment

Cold-water corals of the Late Pleistocene (21,400–22,500 BP) are recorded from the sea-bottom of two inter-atoll channels (Kardiva Channel at 457-m depth and Malé Vaadhoo Channel at 443-m depth) of the eastern row of the Maldives archipelago. Coral assemblages are composed mainly by Lophelia pertusa and secondarily by Madrepora oculata and Enallopsammia rostrata. These cold-water coral patches are places where the benthic life, mainly sessile, is concentrated, which is clearly absent off-rubble patches. The main epibionts are tube-dwelling polychaetes (mainly Spirorbis and Serpula), bryozoans, siliceous sponges, barnacles, gorgonids, solitary corals, encrusting foraminifera, and microbial mats. The analysis of epibionts assemblages shows different biocoenoses between both studied sites as well as a dependency of the epibiont coverage with regard to the coral genus. Some living benthic organisms such as brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, barnacles, and ophiuroids find refuge among coral branches. The common record of juvenile specimens of vagile organisms such as small ophiuroids, is probably related to the nursery function of the cold-water corals in spite they are fossils. Environmental requirements of Recent cold-water corals (Lophelia, Madrepora and Enallopsammia) differ of conditions at both sampling sites with sensibly lower oxygenation degree and density of waters than needed for cold-water corals. Therefore, it is proposed that the present-day oxygen and density conditions are the factors which inhibit modern cold-water coral growth in the inter-atoll channels.     

Influence of the coral reef assemblages on the spatial distribution of echinoderms in a gradient of human impacts along the tropical Mexican Pacific

Fourteen species of echinoderms and their relationships to the benthic structure of the coral reefs were assessed at 27 sites—with different levels of human disturbances—along the coast of the Mexican Central Pacific. Diadema mexicanum and Phataria unifascialis were the most abundant species. The spatial variation of the echinoderm assemblages showed that D. mexicanum, Eucidaris thouarsii, P. unifascialis, Centrostephanus coronatus, Toxopneustes roseus, Holothuria fuscocinerea, Cucumaria flamma, and Echinometra vanbrunti accounted for the dissimilarities among the sites. The spatial variation among the sites was mainly explained by the cover of the hard corals (Porites, Pocillopora, Pavona, Psammocora), different macroalgae species (turf, encrusting calcareous algae, articulated calcareous algae, fleshy macroalgae), sponges, bryozoans, rocky, coral rubble, sand, soft corals (hydrocorals and octocorals), Tubastrea coccinea coral, Balanus spp., and water depth. The coverage of Porites, Pavona, and Pocillopora corals, soft coral, rock, and Balanos shows a positive relationship with the sampling sites included within the natural protected area with low human disturbances. Contrary, fleshy macroalgae, sponges, and soft coral show a positive relationship with higher disturbance sites. The results presented here show the importance of protecting the structural heterogeneity of coral reef habitats because it is a significant factor for the distribution of echinoderm species and can contribute to the design of conservation programs for the coral reef ecosystem.     

Mesophotic reef fish assemblages of the remote St. Peter and St. Paul’s Archipelago,Mid-Atlantic Ridge,Brazil

Mesophotic reef fish assemblages (30–90 m depth) of the small and remote St. Peter and St. Paul’s Archipelago (SPSPA), Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Brazil, were characterized using remotely operated vehicles. Ordination analyses identified distinct fish assemblages in the upper (30–50 m) and lower (50–90 m) mesophotic zones, the former characterized by high abundances of species that are also abundant at euphotic reefs (Caranx lugubris, Melichthys niger, Stegastes sanctipauli and Chromis multilineata) and the latter dominated by two mesophotic specialists (Prognathodes obliquus and Chromis enchrysura). Planktivores dominated fish assemblages, particularly in the upper mesophotic zone, possibly due to a greater availability of zooplankton coming from the colder Equatorial Undercurrent in mesophotic depths of the SPSPA. Turf algae, fleshy macroalgae and scleractinian corals dominated benthic assemblages between 30 and 40 m depth, while bryozoans, black corals and sponges dominated between 40 and 90 m depth. Canonical correspondence analysis explained 74 % of the relationship between environmental characteristics (depth, benthic cover and complexity) and structure of fish assemblages, with depth as the most important independent variable. Juveniles of Bodianus insularis and adults of P. obliquus and C. enchrysura were clearly associated with branching black corals (Tanacetipathes spp.), suggesting that black corals play key ecological roles in lower mesophotic reefs of the SPSPA. Results from this study add to the global database about mesophotic reef ecosystems (MREs) and provide a baseline for future evaluations of possible anthropogenic and natural disturbances on MREs of the SPSPA.     

Bleaching response of coral species in the context of assemblage response

Caribbean coral reefs are declining due to a mosaic of local and global stresses, including climate change-induced thermal stress. Species and assemblage responses differ due to factors that are not easily identifiable or quantifiable. We calculated a novel species-specific metric of coral bleaching response, taxon-α and -β, which relates the response of a species to that of its assemblages for 16 species over 18 assemblages. By contextualizing species responses within the response of their assemblages, the effects of environmental factors are removed and intrinsic differences among taxa are revealed. Most corals experience either a saturation response, overly sensitive to weak stress (α > 0) but under-responsive compared to assemblage bleaching (β < 1), or a threshold response, insensitive to weak stress (α < 0) but over-responsive compared to assemblage bleaching (β > 1). This metric may help reveal key factors of bleaching susceptibility and identify species as targets for conservation.     

Assemblage-level effects of the introduced peacock hind (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cephalopholis argus</Emphasis>) on Hawaiian reef fishes

The peacock hind Cephalopholis argus (family Serranidae), locally known as ‘roi’, was introduced from French Polynesia to Hawaii in the mid-twentieth century as a food fish. However, because of its association with ciguatera fish poisoning, it is rarely fished for food. Previous research indicates that roi could have a negative impact on native reef fish assemblages because of their high densities and prey consumption rates. However, it is unclear whether roi add to the cumulative mortality of prey (predation hypothesis), or whether predation is instead compensatory (doomed surplus hypothesis). This study experimentally assessed the effects of roi on reef fish populations through a long-term (5.5 year) predator removal experiment. A Before-After-Control-Impact study design was used to assess changes in fish assemblages following the removal of roi on 1.3 ha of patch reef. Increases in the density of prey-sized fish (<15 cm TL) were observed 18 months after roi removal. However, those effects did not translate into sustained increases in prey. While increases in potential competitors, wrasses (family Labridae), particularly the piscivorous ringtail wrasse Oxycheilinus unifasciatus, were observed on roi-free reefs, the fish assemblage did not diverge substantially in composition. Native reef fish appeared to resist the potential negative impacts of predation by roi, possibly through a refuge in size for some fish families. Management to protect intact fish assemblage size-structure could serve to bolster native resistance to invading species. In considering the threats facing coral reefs, and the possible solutions, roi removal alone will not likely replenish native fishery resources.     

Genetic diversity of free-living <Emphasis Type="Italic">Symbiodinium</Emphasis> in the Caribbean: the importance of habitats and seasons

Although reef corals are dependent of the dinoflagellate Symbiodinium, the large majority of corals spawn gametes that do not contain their vital symbiont. This suggests the existence of a pool of Symbiodinium in the environment, of which surprisingly little is known. Reefs around Curaçao (Caribbean) were sampled for free-living Symbiodinium at three time periods (summer 2009, summer 2010, and winter 2010) to characterize different habitats (water column, coral rubble, sediment, the macroalgae Halimeda spp., Dictyota spp., and Lobophora variegata, and the seagrass Thalassia testudinum) that could serve as environmental sources of symbionts for corals. We detected the common clades of Symbiodinium that engage in symbiosis with Caribbean coral hosts A, B, and C using Symbiodinium-specific primers of the hypervariable region of the chloroplast 23S ribosomal DNA gene. We also discovered clade G and, for the first time in the Caribbean, the presence of free-living Symbiodinium clades F and H. Additionally, this study expands the habitat range of free-living Symbiodinium as environmental Symbiodinium was detected in T. testudinum seagrass beds. The patterns of association between free-living Symbiodinium types and habitats were shown to be complex. An interesting, strong association was seen between some clade A sequence types and sediment, suggesting that sediment could be a niche where clade A radiated from a free-living ancestor. Other interesting relationships were seen between sequence types of Symbiodinium clade C with Halimeda spp. and clades B and F with T. testudinium. These relationships highlight the importance of some macroalgae and seagrasses in hosting free-living Symbiodinium. Finally, studies spanning beyond a 1-yr cycle are needed to further expand on our results in order to better understand the variation of Symbiodinium in the environment through time. All together, results presented here showed that the great diversity of free-living Symbiodinium has a dynamic distribution across habitats and time.     

Interseasonal and interspecies diversities of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Symbiodinium</Emphasis> density and effective photochemical efficiency in five dominant reef coral species from Luhuitou fringing reef,northern South China Sea

Although it is well established that different coral species have different susceptibilities to thermal stress, the reasons behind this variation are still unclear. In this study, 384 samples across five dominant coral species were collected seasonally between September 2013 and August 2014 at Luhuitou fringing reef in Sanya, Hainan Island, northern South China Sea, and their algal symbiont density and effective photochemical efficiency (Φ _PSII) were measured. The results indicated that both the Symbiodinium density and Φ _PSII of corals were subject to significant interspecies and seasonal variations. Stress-tolerant coral species, including massive Porites lutea and plating Pavona decussata, had higher symbiont densities but lower Φ _PSII compared to the vulnerable branching species of Acropora over the course of all four seasons. Seasonally, coral symbiont densities were the lowest during winter, while during the same period, Φ _PSII of corals was at the highest point. Further analysis suggested that dissolved inorganic nutrients and upwelling in the reef area were probably responsible for the observed seasonal variations in symbiont density. The fact that Porites lutea has the lowest Φ _PSII during all four seasons is likely related to their symbionts’ lower capacity to provide required photosynthates for calcification. These results suggest that a coral’s thermal tolerance is primarily and positively dependent on its symbiont density and is less related to its effective photochemical efficiency.     

Gametogenesis and fecundity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acropora tenella</Emphasis> (Brook 1892) in a mesophotic coral ecosystem in Okinawa,Japan

Mesophotic coral ecosystems (below 30–40 m depth) host a large diversity of zooxanthellate coral communities and may play an important role in the ecology and conservation of coral reefs. Investigating the reproductive biology of mesophotic corals is important to understand their life history traits. Despite an increase in research on mesophotic corals in the last decade, their reproductive biology is still poorly understood. Here, gametogenesis and fecundity of the Indo-Pacific mesophotic coral, Acropora tenella, were examined in an upper mesophotic reef (40 m depth) in Okinawa, Japan for the first time. Acropora tenella is a hermaphrodite with a single annual gametogenic cycle, and both oogenesis and spermatogenesis occurring for 11–12 and 5–6 months, respectively. Timing of spawning of this species was similar to other shallow Acropora spp. in the region. However, colonies had longer gametogenic cycles and less synchronous gamete maturation compared to shallow acroporids with spawning extended over consecutive months. Both the polyp fecundity (number of eggs per polyp) and gonad index (defined as the number of eggs per square centimeter) of A. tenella were lower than most acroporids. Our findings contribute to understanding of the life history of corals on mesophotic reefs and suggest that the reproductive biology of upper mesophotic corals is similar to that of shallow-water corals.     

Long-term dynamics of a high-latitude coral reef community at Sodwana Bay,South Africa

Dynamics in reef cover, mortality and recruitment success of a high-latitude coral community in South Africa were studied over 20 yr with the aim to detect the effects of climate change. Coral communities at this locality are the southernmost on the African continent, non-accretive, attain high biodiversity and are dominated by soft corals. Long-term monitoring within fixed transects on representative reef was initiated in 1993 and has entailed annual photo-quadrat surveys and hourly temperature logging. Although sea temperatures rose by 0.15 °C p.a. at the site up to 2000, they have subsequently been decreasing, and the overall trend based on monthly means has been a significant decrease of 0.03 °C p.a. Despite this, minor bleaching was encountered in the region during the 1998 El Niño–Southern Oscillation event, again in the summer of 2000/2001 and in 2005. A significant decreasing trend of 0.95% p.a. in soft coral cover has been evident throughout the monitoring period, attributable to significant decreases in Sinularia and Lobophytum spp. cover. In contrast, hard coral cover gradually and significantly increased up to 2005, this being largely attributable to increases in cover by Acropora spp. Recruitment success and mortality of both soft and hard corals has displayed high inter-annual variability with increasing but non-significant trends in the last 5 yr. The reduction in soft coral cover has been more consistent and greater than that of hard corals, but it is difficult at this stage to attribute this to changes in water quality, acidification-linked accretion or temperature.     

Two <Emphasis Type="Italic">Streptomyces</Emphasis> Species Producing Antibiotic,Antitumor, and Anti-Inflammatory Compounds Are Widespread Among Intertidal Macroalgae and Deep-Sea Coral Reef Invertebrates from the Central Cantabrian Sea

Streptomycetes are widely distributed in the marine environment, although only a few studies on their associations to algae and coral ecosystems have been reported. Using a culture-dependent approach, we have isolated antibiotic-active Streptomyces species associated to diverse intertidal marine macroalgae (Phyllum Heterokontophyta, Rhodophyta, and Chlorophyta), from the central Cantabrian Sea. Two strains, with diverse antibiotic and cytotoxic activities, were found to inhabit these coastal environments, being widespread and persistent over a 3-year observation time frame. Based on 16S rRNA sequence analysis, the strains were identified as Streptomyces cyaneofuscatus M-27 and Streptomyces carnosus M-40. Similar isolates to these two strains were also associated to corals and other invertebrates from deep-sea coral reef ecosystem (Phyllum Cnidaria, Echinodermata, Arthropoda, Sipuncula, and Anelida) living up to 4.700-m depth in the submarine Avilés Canyon, thus revealing their barotolerant feature. These two strains were also found to colonize terrestrial lichens and have been repeatedly isolated from precipitations from tropospheric clouds. Compounds with antibiotic and cytotoxic activities produced by these strains were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and database comparison. Antitumor compounds with antibacterial activities and members of the anthracycline family (daunomycin, cosmomycin B, galtamycin B), antifungals (maltophilins), anti-inflamatory molecules also with antituberculosis properties (lobophorins) were identified in this work. Many other compounds produced by the studied strains still remain unidentified, suggesting that Streptomyces associated to algae and coral ecosystems might represent an underexplored promising source for pharmaceutical drug discovery.     

Influence of setting,sieve size,and sediment depth on multivariate and univariate assemblage attributes of coral reef-associated mollusc death assemblages from the Gulf of Aqaba

Measures of diversity and ecology of marine invertebrate assemblages depend on a variety of factors including environmental conditions and methodological decisions. In this study, the influence of such factors on multi- and univariate assemblage parameters of molluscan death assemblages from the Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea, Jordan) was evaluated. Sediment samples were collected at two coral reef types, a patch reef at 13 m of water depth characterized by fine-grained sediments and a Millepora-fringing reef with coarse-grained sediments at 5 m of water depth. The upper and lower 10 cm of the sediment column were separately removed and sieved with mesh sizes of 1 and 2 mm. A large dataset of 6400 bivalve and gastropod shells was compiled to evaluate how setting, sediment depth, and sieve size influenced taxonomic composition and species richness, species-abundance patterns and the Shannon–Wiener index, the number of drilled shells per species and drilling frequency (DF) of the assemblage. Setting had the strongest impact on all aspects, followed by sieve size, but sediment depth was insignificant, probably due to complete homogenization of the sediments by reworking and bioturbation. Multivariate assemblage parameters distinguished much better between categories (setting, sieve size) than univariate measures. Sieve size-related disagreements recognized between the two higher taxa are mostly due to the underlying difference in body-size distribution of bivalve and gastropod assemblages. We conclude that species richness and other ecological characteristics of molluscan death assemblages in coral reef-associated sediments will most strongly reflect habitat complexity of the sites chosen, are significantly influenced by methodological decisions (i.e., sieve size), will only poorly preserve temporal patterns, and the results will differ between bivalves and gastropods.     

Habitat preferences of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pteroclava krempfi</Emphasis>-alcyonaceans symbiosis: inner vs outer coral reefs

Herein, we provide observation on the ecological relationships between the hydrozoan species Pteroclava krempfi and three alcyonacean genera: Lobophytum, Sarcophyton and Sinularia from protected and exposed reef habitats in the Maldives. The associations were found to be widespread in the investigated area with both an overall and taxon-specific symbiosis prevalence higher in the exposed reef sites. Pteroclava krempfi most frequently occurred with Lobophytum, followed by Sinularia and Sarcophyton. The prevalence of P. krempfi with soft corals was also positively correlated to percent host cover, which was higher in the outer reef sites, suggesting a host-reliant relationship for the hydrozoan. However, the nature of these relationships, as as well as the factors that drive their establishment, requires further investigation. The widespread degradation of coral reef ecosystems endangers the existence of many poorly understood, but intimate relationships that often go unrecognized.     

Microhabitat characteristics of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Stegastes planifrons</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">S. adustus</Emphasis> territories

Stegastes adustus and Stegastes planifrons are two species of damselfishes commonly found in the Caribbean. These territorial fishes have been widely studied due to their major ecological role on coral reef in controlling the growth of macroalgae that compete with corals for space and, inversely, on their deleterious role in destroying coral tissues to impulse the development of algae. However, few studies were conducted on the biotic and abiotic components of their territories. In the present study, territory size and surfaces of benthic components (macroalgae, algal turf, massive corals, branching corals, Milleporidae, sponges, sand and rubbles) were estimated for the two species at two contrasted sites. At Ilet Pigeon site (IP), the two damselfishes were found at different depth and exhibited different territory sizes. S. adustus defended a larger territory characterized by massive corals, sand and Milleporidae, while S. planifrons territories were smaller, deeper and characterized by branching corals, sponges and rubble. At Passe-à-Colas site (PC), the two fish species coexisted in the same depth range and defended territories of similar size. Their territories presented higher proportions of macroalgae, but smaller surfaces of Milleporidae than at IP. At PC, the main difference between the two species was a higher surface of massive corals inside S. planifrons territories than S. adustus territories. Differences in microhabitat characteristics between the two Stegastes seemed mostly site related. This resulted from the high plasticity of two species, allowing them to persist on Caribbean coral reefs after the decline of most branching acroporids, their former favorite habitats.     

Biodiversity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Spongosorites coralliophaga</Emphasis> (Stephens, 1915) on coral rubble at two contrasting cold-water coral reef settings

Cold-water coral reefs (CWRs) in the northeast Atlantic harbor diverse sponge communities. Knowledge of deep-sea sponge ecology is limited and this leaves us with a fragmented understanding of the ecological roles that sponges play in CWR ecosystems. We present the first study of faunal biodiversity associated with the massive demosponge Spongosorites coralliophaga (Stephens, 1915) that typically colonizes coral debris fields of CWRs. Our study focused on the sessile fauna inhabiting sponges mixed with coral rubble at two contrasting settings in the northeast Atlantic: the shallow inshore (120–190 m water depth) Mingulay Reef Complex (MRC) and the deep offshore (500–1200 m) Logachev Mound (LM) coral province. MRC is dominated by the scleractinian Lophelia pertusa, while LM is dominated by L. pertusa and Madrepora oculata. Nine sponge–coral rubble associations were collected from MRC and four from LM. Measurements of abundance, species richness, diversity, evenness, dry biomass, and composition of sessile fauna on sponge and coral rubble microhabitats were undertaken. Differences in community composition between the two regions were mainly a response to changes in fauna with depth. Fauna composition was also different between sponge and coral rubble within each region. Infauna constituted a minor component of the sponge-associated fauna in MRC but had a higher contribution in LM. Sponge and coral rubble sessile fauna in both regions was mainly composed of cnidarians and molluscs, similarly to some previous studies. Sponges’ outer surfaces at MRC were colonized by a species-rich community with high abundance and biomass suggesting that S. coralliophaga at MRC acts as a settlement surface for various organisms but such a role is not the case at LM. This difference in the role of S. coralliophaga as a biological structure is probably related to differences in fauna composition with depth, bottom current speed, and the quantity/quality of food supplied to the benthos.     

The influence of sea level and cyclones on Holocene reef flat development: Middle Island,central Great Barrier Reef

The geomorphology and chronostratigraphy of the reef flat (including microatoll ages and elevations) were investigated to better understand the long-term development of the reef at Middle Island, inshore central Great Barrier Reef. Eleven cores across the fringing reef captured reef initiation, framework accretion and matrix sediments, allowing a comprehensive appreciation of reef development. Precise uranium–thorium ages obtained from coral skeletons revealed that the reef initiated ~7873 ± 17 years before present (yBP), and most of the reef was emplaced in the following 1000 yr. Average rates of vertical reef accretion ranged between 3.5 and 7.6 mm yr^?1. Reef framework was dominated by branching corals (Acropora and Montipora). An age hiatus of ~5000 yr between 6439 ± 19 and 1617 ± 10 yBP was observed in the core data and attributed to stripping of the reef structure by intense cyclones during the mid- to late-Holocene. Large shingle ridges deposited onshore and basset edges preserved on the reef flat document the influence of cyclones at Middle Island and represent potential sinks for much of the stripped material. Stripping of the upper reef structure around the outer margin of the reef flat by cyclones created accommodation space for a thin (<1.2 m) veneer of reef growth after 1617 ± 10 yBP that grew over the eroded mid-Holocene reef structure. Although limited fetch and open-water exposure might suggest the reef flat at Middle Island is quite protected, our results show that high-energy waves presumably generated by cyclones have significantly influenced both Holocene reef growth and contemporary reef flat geomorphology.     

Temporal consistency in background mortality of four dominant coral taxa along Australia’s Great Barrier Reef

Studies on the population and community dynamics of scleractinian corals typically focus on catastrophic mortality associated with acute disturbances (e.g., coral bleaching and outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish), though corals are subject to high levels of background mortality and injuries caused by routine and chronic processes. This study quantified prevalence (proportion of colonies with injuries) and severity (areal extent of injuries on individual colonies) of background mortality and injuries for four common coral taxa (massive Porites, encrusting Montipora, Acropora hyacinthus and branching Pocillopora) on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Sampling was conducted over three consecutive years during which there were no major acute disturbances. A total of 2276 adult colonies were surveyed across 27 sites, within nine reefs and three distinct latitudinal sectors. The prevalence of injuries was very high (>83%) across all four taxa, but highest for Porites (91%) and Montipora (85%). For these taxa (Montipora and Pocillopora), there was also significant temporal and spatial variation in prevalence of partial mortality. The severity of injuries ranged from 3% to more than 80% and varied among coral taxa, but was fairly constant spatially and temporally. This shows that some injuries have considerable longevity and that corals may invest relatively little in regenerating tissue over sites of previous injuries. Inter-colony variation in the severity of injury also had no apparent effect on the realized growth of individual colonies, suggesting that energy diverted to regeneration has a limited bearing on overall energetic allocation, or impacts on other life-history processes (e.g., reproduction) rather than growth. Establishing background levels of injury and regeneration is important for understanding energy investment and life-history consequences for reef-building corals as well as for predicting susceptibility to, and capacity to recover from, acute disturbances.     

Skeletal dissolution kinetics and mechanical tests in response to morphology among coral genera

Ocean acidification is widely accepted as a primary threat to coral reef populations. Negative physiological effects include decreased calcification rates, heightened metabolic energy expenditure, and increased dissolution of coral skeletons. However, studies on the dissolution of coral skeletons structures under ocean acidification conditions and their implications on sediments remain scarce. In this work, we examined skeletal dissolution kinetics from four of the most representative hermatypic corals of the Eastern Pacific coasts (Pocillopora, Porites, Pavona, and Psammocora). Samples were treated with a highly acidic solution for defined periods of time, and measurements of dissolved calcium ([Ca⁺²]) were used to evaluate the kinetics of coral skeleton dissolution. All genera tests except Porites showed a zero reaction rate. Porites exhibited a first-order reaction and a faster reaction rate than other genera. Compression strength tests and skeletal density did not correlate with reaction rate. Pavona showed greater structural strength. Porites were the most susceptible to acidic dissolution compared to other genera tested due to their morphology, i.e., possession of the largest surface area, suggesting a high vulnerability under low-pH conditions. The hierarchical response in dissolution kinetics among coral genera tested suggests that the most soluble coral might act as a buffer under ocean acidification conditions.     

Patterns of distribution and movement of fishes, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ophthalmolepis lineolatus</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hypoplectrodes maccullochi</Emphasis>, on temperate rocky reefs of south eastern Australia

Current ecological models predict that reef fish assemblages will be strongly influenced by habitat type. Here we test hypotheses about habitat types and abundance patterns of temperate reef fishes from broad spatial scales (100 s of km) to small spatial scales of metres to tens of metres. Habitat preferences are also described over long periods of time (22 years) for two abundant taxa. Patterns of distribution and abundance varied over ～ eight degrees of latitude (29.9–37.5°S) along the coast of New South Wales, Australia. Ophthalmolepis lineolatus (Labridae) preferred kelp and Barrens habitats and juveniles were most abundant in habitats rich in algae. This species also increased in abundance from North to South. In contrast, Hypoplectrodes maccullochi (Serranidae) were usually only found in the Barrens habitat and great variation was found among locations. Both taxa were most abundant on urchin grazed deep reefs (over 10 m deep). Habitat preferences of O. lineolatus and H. maccullochi appeared resistant to major environmental perturbations that included large El Niño events in 1991, 1998 and 2002. Home ranges of O. lineolatus varied from 52 m² to 1,660 m² and often overlapped; fish of all sizes were most abundant in algal dominated habitat. Limited movements and small home ranges (2.1–11.6 m²) combined with a strong affiliation for shelter indicated that most H. maccullochi are strongly site-attached. Habitat type is important to these taxonomically different fishes, but to varying degrees where H. maccullochi was more of a habitat specialist than O. lineolatus and would be more vulnerable to perturbations that alter Barrens. Changes in reef habitats will have a great influence on fish assemblages and this should also be considered in coastal planning (e.g. for Marine Protected Areas, MPAs) and the assessments of resistance and resilience of fishes to climate change.