Effects of Winter Cover Crops Straws Incorporation on CH4 and N2O Emission from Double-Cropping Paddy Fields in Southern China

Residue management in cropping systems is believed to improve soil quality. However, the effects of residue management on methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from paddy field in Southern China have not been well researched. The emissions of CH₄ and N₂O were investigated in double cropping rice (Oryza sativa L.) systems with straw returning of different winter cover crops by using the static chamber-gas chromatography technique. A randomized block experiment with three replications was established in 2004 in Hunan Province, China, including rice–rice–ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum L.) (Ry-R-R), rice–rice–Chinese milk vetch (Astragalus sinicus L.) (Mv-R-R) and rice–rice with winter fallow (Fa-R-R). The results showed that straw returning of winter crops significantly increased the CH₄ emission during both rice growing seasons when compared with Fa-R-R. Ry-R-R plots had the largest CH₄ emissions during the early rice growing season with 14.235 and 15.906 g m⁻² in 2012 and 2013, respectively, when Ry-R-R plots had the largest CH₄ emission during the later rice growing season with 35.673 and 38.606 g m⁻² in 2012 and 2013, respectively. The Ry-R-R and Mv-R-R also had larger N₂O emissions than Fa-R-R in both rice seasons. When compared to Fa-R-R, total N₂O emissions in the early rice growing season were increased by 0.05 g m⁻² in Ry-R-R and 0.063 g m⁻² in Mv-R-R in 2012, and by 0.058 g m⁻² in Ry-R-R and 0.068 g m⁻² in Mv-R-R in 2013, respectively. Similar result were obtained in the late rice growing season, and the total N₂O emissions were increased by 0.104 g m⁻² in Ry-R-R and 0.073 g m⁻² in Mv-R-R in 2012, and by 0.108 g m⁻² in Ry-R-R and 0.076 g m⁻² in Mv-R-R in 2013, respectively. The global warming potentials (GWPs) from paddy fields were ranked as Ry-R-R>Mv-R-R>Fa-R-R. As a result, straw returning of winter cover crops has significant effects on increase of CH₄ and N₂O emission from paddy field in double cropping rice system.     

Winter CO2 CH4 and N2O fluxes on some natural and drained boreal peatlands

CO₂ and CH₄ fluxes during the winter were measured at natural and drained bog and fen sites in eastern Finland using both the closed chamber method and calculations of gas diffusion along a concentration gradient through the snowpack. The snow diffusion results were compared with those obtained by chamber, but the winter flux estimates were derived from chamber data only. CH₄ emissions from a poor bog were lower than those from an oligotrophic fen, while both CO₂ and CH₄ fluxes were higher in theCarex rostrata- occupied marginal (lagg) area of the fen than in the slightly less fertile centre. Average estimated winter CO₂-C losses from virgin and drained forested peatlands were 41 and 68 g CO₂-C m^–2, respectively, accounting for 23 and 21% of the annual total CO₂ release from the peat. The mean release of CH₄-C was 1.0 g in natural bogs and 3.4 g m^–2 in fens, giving rise to winter emissions averaging to 22% of the annual emission from the bogs and 10% of that from the fens. These wintertime carbon gas losses in Finnish natural peatlands were even greater than reported average long-term annual C accumulation values (less than 25g C m^–2). The narrow range of 10–30% of the proportion of winter CO₂ and CH₄ emissions from annual emissions found in Finnish peatlands suggest that a wider generalization in the boreal zone is possible. Drained forested bogs emitted 0.3 g CH₄-C m^–2 on the average, while the effectively drained fens consumed an average of 0.01 g CH₄-C m^–2. Reason for the low CH₄. efflux or net oxidation in drained peatlands probably lies in low substrate supply and thus low CH₄ production in the anoxic deep peat layers. N₂O release from a fertilized grassland site in November–May was 0.7 g N₂O m^–2, accounting for 38% of the total annual emission, while a forested bog released none and two efficiently drained forested fens 0.09 (28% of annual release) and 0.04 g N₂O m^–2 (27%) during the winter, respectively.     

Greenhouse gas budget (CO2, CH4 and N2O) of intensively managed grassland following restoration

The first full greenhouse gas (GHG) flux budget of an intensively managed grassland in Switzerland (Chamau) is presented. The three major trace gases, carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) were measured with the eddy covariance (EC) technique. For CO₂ concentrations, an open‐path infrared gas analyzer was used, while N₂O and CH₄ concentrations were measured with a recently developed continuous‐wave quantum cascade laser absorption spectrometer (QCLAS). We investigated the magnitude of these trace gas emissions after grassland restoration, including ploughing, harrowing, sowing, and fertilization with inorganic and organic fertilizers in 2012. Large peaks of N₂O fluxes (20–50 nmol m^?2 s^?1 compared with a <5 nmol m^?2 s^?1 background) were observed during thawing of the soil after the winter period and after mineral fertilizer application followed by re‐sowing in the beginning of the summer season. Nitrous oxide (N₂O) fluxes were controlled by nitrogen input, plant productivity, soil water content and temperature. Management activities led to increased variations of N₂O fluxes up to 14 days after the management event as compared with background fluxes measured during periods without management (<5 nmol m^?2 s^?1). Fluxes of CO₂ remained small until full plant development in early summer 2012. In contrast, methane emissions showed only minor variations over time. The annual GHG flux budget was dominated by N₂O (48% contribution) and CO₂ emissions (44%). CH₄ flux contribution to the annual budget was only minor (8%). We conclude that recently developed multi‐species QCLAS in an EC system open new opportunities to determine the temporal variation of N₂O and CH₄ fluxes, which further allow to quantify annual emissions. With respect to grassland restoration, our study emphasizes the key role of N₂O and CO₂ losses after ploughing, changing a permanent grassland from a carbon sink to a significant carbon source.     

Intensive measurement of nitrous oxide emissions from a corn–soybean–wheat rotation under two contrasting management systems over 5 years

No‐tillage (NT), a practice that has been shown to increase carbon sequestration in soils, has resulted in contradictory effects on nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. Moreover, it is not clear how mitigation practices for N₂O emission reduction, such as applying nitrogen (N) fertilizer according to soil N reserves and matching the time of application to crop uptake, interact with NT practices. N₂O fluxes from two management systems [conventional (CP), and best management practices: NT + reduced fertilizer (BMP)] applied to a corn (Zea mays L.), soybean (Glycine max L.), winter‐wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotation in Ontario, Canada, were measured from January 2000 to April 2005, using a micrometeorological method. The superimposition of interannual variability of weather and management resulted in mean monthly N₂O fluxes ranging from − 1.9 to 61.3 g N ha⁻¹ day⁻¹. Mean annual N₂O emissions over the 5‐year period decreased significantly by 0.79 from 2.19 kg N ha⁻¹ for CP to 1.41 kg N ha⁻¹ for BMP. Growing season (May–October) N₂O emissions were reduced on average by 0.16 kg N ha⁻¹ (20% of total reduction), and this decrease only occurred in the corn year of the rotation. Nongrowing season (November–April) emissions, comprised between 30% and 90% of the annual emissions, mostly due to increased N₂O fluxes during soil thawing. These emissions were well correlated (r²= 0.90) to the accumulated degree‐hours below 0 °C at 5 cm depth, a measure of duration and intensity of soil freezing. Soil management in BMP (NT) significantly reduced N₂O emissions during thaw (80% of total reduction) by reducing soil freezing due to the insulating effects of the larger snow cover plus corn and wheat residue during winter. In conclusion, significant reductions in net greenhouse gas emissions can be obtained when NT is combined with a strategy that matches N application rate and timing to crop needs.     

Impact of Grazing Intensity and Seasons on Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Tropical Grassland

Greenhouse gases (GHG) can be affected by grazing intensity, soil, and climate variables. This study aimed at assessing GHG emissions from a tropical pasture of Brazil to evaluate (i) how the grazing intensity affects the magnitude of GHG emissions; (ii) how season influences GHG production and consumption; and (iii) what are the key driving variables associated with GHG emissions. We measured under field conditions, during two years in a palisade-grass pasture managed with 3 grazing intensities: heavy (15 cm height), moderate (25 cm height), and light (35 cm height) N₂O, CH₄ and CO₂ fluxes using static closed chambers and chromatographic quantification. The greater emissions occurred in the summer and the lower in the winter. N₂O, CH₄, and CO₂ fluxes varied according to the season and were correlated with pasture grazing intensity, temperature, precipitation, % WFPS (water-filled pores space), and soil inorganic N. The explanatory variables differ according to the gas and season. Grazing intensity had a negative linear effect on annual cumulative N₂O emissions and a positive linear effect on annual cumulative CO₂ emissions. Grazing intensity, season, and year affected N₂O, CH₄, and CO₂ emissions. Tropical grassland can be a large sink of N₂O and CH₄. GHG emissions were explained for different key driving variables according to the season.     

Greenhouse Gas Fluxes from Salt Marshes Exposed to Chronic Nutrient Enrichment

We assessed the impact of nutrient additions on greenhouse gas fluxes using dark static chambers in a microtidal and a macrotidal marsh along the coast of New Brunswick, Canada approximately monthly over a year. Both were experimentally fertilized for six years with varying levels of N and P. For unfertilized, N and NPK treatments, average yearly CO₂ emissions (which represent only respiration) at the microtidal marsh (13, 19, and 28 mmoles CO₂ m^-2 hr^-1, respectively) were higher than at the macrotidal marsh (12, 15, and 19 mmoles m^-2 hr^-1, respectively, with a flux under the additional high N/low P treatment of 21 mmoles m^-2 hr^-1). Response of CH₄ to fertilization was more variable. At the macrotidal marsh average yearly fluxes were 1.29, 1.26, and 0.77 μmol CH₄ m^-2 hr^-1 with control, N, and NPK treatments, respectively and 1.21 μmol m^-2 hr^-1 under high N/low P treatment. At the microtidal marsh CH₄ fluxes were 0.23, 0.16, and -0.24 μmol CH₄ m^-2 hr^-1 in control, N, and NPK and treatments, respectively. Fertilization changed soils from sinks to sources of N₂O. Average yearly N₂O fluxes at the macrotidal marsh were -0.07, 0.08, and 1.70, μmol N₂O m^-2 hr^-1 in control, N, NPK and treatments, respectively and 0.35 μmol m^-2 hr^-1 under high N/low P treatment. For the control, N, and NPK treatments at the microtidal marsh N₂O fluxes were -0.05, 0.30, and 0.52 μmol N₂O m^-2 hr^-1, respectively. Our results indicate that N₂O fluxes are likely to vary with the source of pollutant nutrients but emissions will be lower if N is not accompanied by an adequate supply of P (e.g., atmospheric deposition vs sewage or agricultural runoff). With chronic fertilization the global warming potential of the increased N₂O emissions may be enough to offset the global cooling potential of the C sequestered by salt marshes.     

Methane and nitrous oxide fluxes in annual and perennial land-use systems of the irrigated areas in the Aral Sea Basin

Land use and agricultural practices can result in important contributions to the global source strength of atmospheric nitrous oxide (N₂O) and methane (CH₄). However, knowledge of gas flux from irrigated agriculture is very limited. From April 2005 to October 2006, a study was conducted in the Aral Sea Basin, Uzbekistan, to quantify and compare emissions of N₂O and CH₄ in various annual and perennial land-use systems: irrigated cotton, winter wheat and rice crops, a poplar plantation and a natural Tugai (floodplain) forest. In the annual systems, average N₂O emissions ranged from 10 to 150 μg N₂O-N m⁻² h⁻¹ with highest N₂O emissions in the cotton fields, covering a similar range of previous studies from irrigated cropping systems. Emission factors (uncorrected for background emission), used to determine the fertilizer-induced N₂O emission as a percentage of N fertilizer applied, ranged from 0.2% to 2.6%. Seasonal variations in N₂O emissions were principally controlled by fertilization and irrigation management. Pulses of N₂O emissions occurred after concomitant N-fertilizer application and irrigation. The unfertilized poplar plantation showed high N₂O emissions over the entire study period (30 μg N₂O-N m⁻² h⁻¹), whereas only negligible fluxes of N₂O (<2 μg N₂O-N m⁻² h⁻¹) occurred in the Tugai. Significant CH₄ fluxes only were determined from the flooded rice field: Fluxes were low with mean flux rates of 32 mg CH₄ m⁻² day⁻¹ and a low seasonal total of 35.2 kg CH₄ ha⁻¹. The global warming potential (GWP) of the N₂O and CH₄ fluxes was highest under rice and cotton, with seasonal changes between 500 and 3000 kg CO₂ eq. ha⁻¹. The biennial cotton–wheat–rice crop rotation commonly practiced in the region would average a GWP of 2500 kg CO₂ eq. ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. The analyses point out opportunities for reducing the GWP of these irrigated agricultural systems by (i) optimization of fertilization and irrigation practices and (ii) conversion of annual cropping systems into perennial forest plantations, especially on less profitable, marginal lands.     

Global trends and uncertainties in terrestrial denitrification and N2O emissions

Soil nitrogen (N) budgets are used in a global, distributed flow-path model with 0.5° × 0.5° resolution, representing denitrification and N₂O emissions from soils, groundwater and riparian zones for the period 1900–2000 and scenarios for the period 2000–2050 based on the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Total agricultural and natural N inputs from N fertilizers, animal manure, biological N₂ fixation and atmospheric N deposition increased from 155 to 345 Tg N yr⁻¹ (Tg = teragram; 1 Tg = 10¹² g) between 1900 and 2000. Depending on the scenario, inputs are estimated to further increase to 408–510 Tg N yr⁻¹ by 2050. In the period 1900–2000, the soil N budget surplus (inputs minus withdrawal by plants) increased from 118 to 202 Tg yr⁻¹, and this may remain stable or further increase to 275 Tg yr⁻¹ by 2050, depending on the scenario. N₂ production from denitrification increased from 52 to 96 Tg yr⁻¹ between 1900 and 2000, and N₂O–N emissions from 10 to 12 Tg N yr⁻¹. The scenarios foresee a further increase to 142 Tg N₂–N and 16 Tg N₂O–N yr⁻¹ by 2050. Our results indicate that riparian buffer zones are an important source of N₂O contributing an estimated 0.9 Tg N₂O–N yr⁻¹ in 2000. Soils are key sites for denitrification and are much more important than groundwater and riparian zones in controlling the N flow to rivers and the oceans.     

Soil-atmospheric exchange of CO2, CH4, and N2O in three subtropical forest ecosystems in southern China

The magnitude, temporal, and spatial patterns of soil‐atmospheric greenhouse gas (hereafter referred to as GHG) exchanges in forests near the Tropic of Cancer are still highly uncertain. To contribute towards an improvement of actual estimates, soil‐atmospheric CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O fluxes were measured in three successional subtropical forests at the Dinghushan Nature Reserve (hereafter referred to as DNR) in southern China. Soils in DNR forests behaved as N₂O sources and CH₄ sinks. Annual mean CO₂, N₂O, and CH₄ fluxes (mean±SD) were 7.7±4.6 Mg CO₂‐C ha^?1 yr^?1, 3.2±1.2 kg N₂O‐N ha^?1 yr^?1, and 3.4±0.9 kg CH₄‐C ha^?1 yr^?1, respectively. The climate was warm and wet from April through September 2003 (the hot‐humid season) and became cool and dry from October 2003 through March 2004 (the cool‐dry season). The seasonality of soil CO₂ emission coincided with the seasonal climate pattern, with high CO₂ emission rates in the hot‐humid season and low rates in the cool‐dry season. In contrast, seasonal patterns of CH₄ and N₂O fluxes were not clear, although higher CH₄ uptake rates were often observed in the cool‐dry season and higher N₂O emission rates were often observed in the hot‐humid season. GHG fluxes measured at these three sites showed a clear increasing trend with the progressive succession. If this trend is representative at the regional scale, CO₂ and N₂O emissions and CH₄ uptake in southern China may increase in the future in light of the projected change in forest age structure. Removal of surface litter reduced soil CO₂ effluxes by 17–44% in the three forests but had no significant effect on CH₄ absorption and N₂O emission rates. This suggests that microbial CH₄ uptake and N₂O production was mainly related to the mineral soil rather than in the surface litter layer.     

Influences of Land Use/Cover Types on Nitrous Oxide Emissions during Freeze-Thaw Periods from Waterlogged Soils in Inner Mongolia

Nitrous oxide emissions during freeze/thaw periods contribute significantly to annual soil N₂O emissions budgets in middle- and high-latitude areas; however, the freeze/thaw-related N₂O emissions from waterlogged soils have hardly been studied in the Hulunber Grassland, Inner Mongolia. For this study, the effects of changes in land use/cover types on N₂O emissions during freeze–thaw cycles were investigated to more accurately quantify the annual N₂O emissions from grasslands. Soil cores from six sites were incubated at varying temperature (ranging from −15 to 10°C) to simulate freeze–thaw cycles. N₂O production rates were low in all soil cores during freezing periods, but increased markedly after soil thawed. Mean rates of N₂O production differed by vegetation type, and followed the sequence: Leymus chinensis (LC) and Artemisia tanacetifolia (AT) steppes > LC steppes ≥ Stipa baicalensis (SB) steppes. Land use types (mowing and grazing) had differing effects on freeze/thaw-related N₂O production. Grazing significantly reduced N₂O production by 36.8%, while mowing enhanced production. The production of N₂O was related to the rate at which grassland was mowed, in the order: triennially (M3) > once annually (M1) ≥ unmown (UM). Compared with the UM control plot, the M3 and M1 mowing regimes enhanced N₂O production by 57.9% and 13.0% respectively. The results of in situ year-round measurements showed that large amounts of N₂O were emitted during the freeze–thaw period, and that annual mean fluxes of N₂O were 9.21 μg N₂O-N m^-2 h^-1 (ungrazed steppe) and 6.54 μg N₂O-N m^-2 h^-1 (grazed steppe). Our results further the understanding of freeze/thaw events as enhancing N₂O production, and confirm that different land use/cover types should be differentiated rather than presumed to be equivalent, regarding nitrous oxide emission. Even so, further research involving multi-year and intensive measurements of N₂O emission is still needed.     

No significant nitrous oxide emissions during spring thaw under grazing and nitrogen addition in an alpine grassland

A recent study (Wolf et al., 2010) suggests that short—lived pulses of N₂O emission during spring thaw dominate the annual N₂O budget and that grazing decreases N₂O emissions during the spring thaw. To verify this we conducted year—round N₂O flux measurements from June 2010 to May 2011 in Tianshan alpine grassland in central Asia. No pulse emissions of N₂O were found at grazing management sites and nitrogen addition sites during the spring thaw. The contribution of the spring thaw to the total annual N₂O budget was small and accounted for only 6.6% of the annual fluxes, with winter emissions accounting for 16.7% and growing season emissions accounting for 76.7%. The difference in N₂O emissions attributable to grazing management was not significant (P > 0.05). Nitrogen input tended to increase N₂O emissions at N addition sites during the grass growing season compared with those at unfertilized sites. N₂O fluxes showed a significant correlation with air temperature and also with both soil temperature and soil water content at 10 cm depth.     

线虫和蚯蚓对土壤微量气体排放的影响

线虫和蚯蚓是农业中广泛存在的土壤动物,由于它们与微生物的相互作用及对土壤生态系统能量传递和养分转化的影响,可能影响土壤微量气体代谢和温室气体的排放.通过在不同土壤线虫密度下接种蚯蚓的15d培养试验结果表明,土壤动物对土壤微量气体(CO2和N2O)代谢有显著促进作用.与灭线土相比,高密度线虫土壤处理与高密度线虫土壤加蚯蚓的处理导致CO2排放量分别增加了4.3倍和5.2倍,相应的N2O排放量增加了1.8倍和2.7倍.与低密度线虫土壤处理比较时,高密度线虫土壤处理导致CO2和N2O排放量分别增加了19%和21%.接种蚯蚓在高密度线虫土中较接种在低密度线虫土壤中的CO2和N2O排放量分别增加了12%和27%.5个处理中,除了低密度线虫加蚯蚓的处理和高密度线虫处理间差异不显著外,其余各处理间均达到极显著差异(P<0.01).两种气体的排放速率呈极显著正相关(R2=0.9414).高密度线虫土壤较低密度线虫土壤显著提高了土壤的DOC含量,不同线虫密度土壤中DOC显著性的差异与CO2和N2O排放密切相关(P<0.05).     

Carbon Cycling of Lake Kivu (East Africa): Net Autotrophy in the Epilimnion and Emission of CO2 to the Atmosphere Sustained by Geogenic Inputs

We report organic and inorganic carbon distributions and fluxes in a large (>2000 km²) oligotrophic, tropical lake (Lake Kivu, East Africa), acquired during four field surveys, that captured the seasonal variations (March 2007–mid rainy season, September 2007–late dry season, June 2008–early dry season, and April 2009–late rainy season). The partial pressure of CO₂ (pCO₂) in surface waters of the main basin of Lake Kivu showed modest spatial (coefficient of variation between 3% and 6%), and seasonal variations with an amplitude of 163 ppm (between 579±23 ppm on average in March 2007 and 742±28 ppm on average in September 2007). The most prominent spatial feature of the pCO₂ distribution was the very high pCO₂ values in Kabuno Bay (a small sub-basin with little connection to the main lake) ranging between 11213 ppm and 14213 ppm (between 18 and 26 times higher than in the main basin). Surface waters of the main basin of Lake Kivu were a net source of CO₂ to the atmosphere at an average rate of 10.8 mmol m⁻² d⁻¹, which is lower than the global average reported for freshwater, saline, and volcanic lakes. In Kabuno Bay, the CO₂ emission to the atmosphere was on average 500.7 mmol m⁻² d⁻¹ (∼46 times higher than in the main basin). Based on whole-lake mass balance of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) bulk concentrations and of its stable carbon isotope composition, we show that the epilimnion of Lake Kivu was net autotrophic. This is due to the modest river inputs of organic carbon owing to the small ratio of catchment area to lake surface area (2.15). The carbon budget implies that the CO₂ emission to the atmosphere must be sustained by DIC inputs of geogenic origin from deep geothermal springs.     

A new estimation of global soil greenhouse gas fluxes using a simple data-oriented model

Soil greenhouse gas fluxes (particularly CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O) play important roles in climate change. However, despite the importance of these soil greenhouse gases, the number of reports on global soil greenhouse gas fluxes is limited. Here, new estimates are presented for global soil CO₂ emission (total soil respiration), CH₄ uptake, and N₂O emission fluxes, using a simple data-oriented model. The estimated global fluxes for CO₂ emission, CH₄ uptake, and N₂O emission were 78 Pg C yr⁻¹ (Monte Carlo 95% confidence interval, 64–95 Pg C yr⁻¹), 18 Tg C yr⁻¹ (11–23 Tg C yr⁻¹), and 4.4 Tg N yr⁻¹ (1.4–11.1 Tg N yr⁻¹), respectively. Tropical regions were the largest contributor of all of the gases, particularly the CO₂ and N₂O fluxes. The soil CO₂ and N₂O fluxes had more pronounced seasonal patterns than the soil CH₄ flux. The collected estimates, including both the previous and the present estimates, demonstrate that the means of the best estimates from each study were 79 Pg C yr⁻¹ (291 Pg CO₂ yr⁻¹; coefficient of variation, CV = 13%, N = 6) for CO₂, 21 Tg C yr⁻¹ (29 Tg CH₄ yr⁻¹; CV = 24%, N = 24) for CH₄, and 7.8 Tg N yr⁻¹ (12.2 Tg N₂O yr⁻¹; CV = 38%, N = 11) for N₂O. For N₂O, the mean of the estimates that was calculated by excluding the earliest two estimates was 6.6 Tg N yr⁻¹ (10.4 Tg N₂O yr⁻¹; CV = 22%, N = 9). The reported estimates vary and have large degrees of uncertainty but their overall magnitudes are in general agreement. To further minimize the uncertainty of soil greenhouse gas flux estimates, it is necessary to build global databases and identify key processes in describing global soil greenhouse gas fluxes.     

In-depth analysis of N2O fluxes in tropical forest soils of the Congo Basin combining isotope and functional gene analysis

Primary tropical forests generally exhibit large gaseous nitrogen (N) losses, occurring as nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N₂O) or elemental nitrogen (N₂). The release of N₂O is of particular concern due to its high global warming potential and destruction of stratospheric ozone. Tropical forest soils are predicted to be among the largest natural sources of N₂O; however, despite being the world’s second-largest rainforest, measurements of gaseous N-losses from forest soils of the Congo Basin are scarce. In addition, long-term studies investigating N₂O fluxes from different forest ecosystem types (lowland and montane forests) are scarce. In this study we show that fluxes measured in the Congo Basin were lower than fluxes measured in the Neotropics, and in the tropical forests of Australia and South East Asia. In addition, we show that despite different climatic conditions, average annual N₂O fluxes in the Congo Basin’s lowland forests (0.97 ± 0.53 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) were comparable to those in its montane forest (0.88 ± 0.97 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹). Measurements of soil pore air N₂O isotope data at multiple depths suggests that a microbial reduction of N₂O to N₂ within the soil may account for the observed low surface N₂O fluxes and low soil pore N₂O concentrations. The potential for microbial reduction is corroborated by a significant abundance and expression of the gene nosZ in soil samples from both study sites. Although isotopic and functional gene analyses indicate an enzymatic potential for complete denitrification, combined gaseous N-losses (N₂O, N₂) are unlikely to account for the missing N-sink in these forests. Other N-losses such as NO, N₂ via Feammox or hydrological particulate organic nitrogen export could play an important role in soils of the Congo Basin and should be the focus of future research.Subject terms: Microbiology, Biogeochemistry     

El Ni?o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Enhances CO2 Exchange Rates in Freshwater Marsh Ecosystems in the Florida Everglades

This research examines the relationships between El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), water level, precipitation patterns and carbon dioxide (CO₂) exchange rates in the freshwater wetland ecosystems of the Florida Everglades. Data was obtained over a 5-year study period (2009–2013) from two freshwater marsh sites located in Everglades National Park that differ in hydrology. At the short-hydroperiod site (Taylor Slough; TS) and the long-hydroperiod site (Shark River Slough; SRS) fluctuations in precipitation patterns occurred with changes in ENSO phase, suggesting that extreme ENSO phases alter Everglades hydrology which is known to have a substantial influence on ecosystem carbon dynamics. Variations in both ENSO phase and annual net CO₂ exchange rates co-occurred with changes in wet and dry season length and intensity. Combined with site-specific seasonality in CO₂ exchanges rates, El Niño and La Niña phases magnified season intensity and CO₂ exchange rates at both sites. At TS, net CO₂ uptake rates were higher in the dry season, whereas SRS had greater rates of carbon sequestration during the wet season. As La Niña phases were concurrent with drought years and extended dry seasons, TS became a greater sink for CO₂ on an annual basis (−11 to −110 g CO₂ m⁻² yr⁻¹) compared to El Niño and neutral years (−5 to −43.5 g CO₂ m⁻² yr⁻¹). SRS was a small source for CO₂ annually (1.81 to 80 g CO₂ m⁻² yr⁻¹) except in one exceptionally wet year that was associated with an El Niño phase (−16 g CO₂ m⁻² yr⁻¹). Considering that future climate predictions suggest a higher frequency and intensity in El Niño and La Niña phases, these results indicate that changes in extreme ENSO phases will significantly alter CO₂ dynamics in the Florida Everglades.     

Burrows of the Semi-Terrestrial Crab Ucides cordatus Enhance CO2 Release in a North Brazilian Mangrove Forest

Ucides cordatus is an abundant mangrove crab in Brazil constructing burrows of up to 2 m depth. Sediment around burrows may oxidize during low tides. This increase in sediment-air contact area may enhance carbon degradation processes. We hypothesized that 1) the sediment CO₂ efflux rate is greater with burrows than without and 2) the reduction potential in radial profiles in the sediment surrounding the burrows decreases gradually, until approximating non-bioturbated conditions. Sampling was conducted during the North Brazilian wet season at neap tides. CO₂ efflux rates of inhabited burrows and plain sediment were measured with a CO₂/H₂O gas analyzer connected to a respiration chamber. Sediment redox potential, pH and temperature were measured in the sediment surrounding the burrows at horizontal distances of 2, 5, 8 and 15 cm at four sediment depths (1, 10, 30 and 50 cm) and rH values were calculated. Sediment cores (50 cm length) were taken to measure the same parameters for plain sediment. CO₂ efflux rates of plain sediment and individual crab burrows with entrance diameters of 7 cm were 0.7–1.3 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and 0.2–0.4 µmol burrows⁻¹ s⁻¹, respectively. CO₂ released from a Rhizophora mangle dominated forest with an average of 1.7 U. cordatus burrows⁻¹ m⁻² yielded 1.0–1.7 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹, depending on the month and burrow entrance diameter. Laboratory experiments revealed that 20–60% of the CO₂ released by burrows originated from crab respiration. Temporal changes in the reduction potential in the sediment surrounding the burrows did not influence the CO₂ release from burrows. More oxidized conditions of plain sediment over time may explain the increase in CO₂ release until the end of the wet season. CO₂ released by U. cordatus and their burrows may be a significant pathway of CO₂ export from mangrove sediments and should be considered in mangrove carbon budget estimates.     

Quantifying Beetle-Mediated Effects on Gas Fluxes from Dung Pats

Agriculture is one of the largest contributors of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs) responsible for global warming. Measurements of gas fluxes from dung pats suggest that dung is a source of GHGs, but whether these emissions are modified by arthropods has not been studied. A closed chamber system was used to measure the fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) from dung pats with and without dung beetles on a grass sward. The presence of dung beetles significantly affected the fluxes of GHGs from dung pats. Most importantly, fresh dung pats emitted higher amounts of CO₂ and lower amounts of CH₄ per day in the presence than absence of beetles. Emissions of N₂O showed a distinct peak three weeks after the start of the experiment – a pattern detected only in the presence of beetles. When summed over the main grazing season (June–July), total emissions of CH₄ proved significantly lower, and total emissions of N₂O significantly higher in the presence than absence of beetles. While clearly conditional on the experimental conditions, the patterns observed here reveal a potential impact of dung beetles on gas fluxes realized at a small spatial scale, and thereby suggest that arthropods may have an overall effect on gas fluxes from agriculture. Dissecting the exact mechanisms behind these effects, mapping out the range of conditions under which they occur, and quantifying effect sizes under variable environmental conditions emerge as key priorities for further research.     

Winter production of CO2 and N2O from alpine tundra: environmental controls and relationship to inter-system C and N fluxes

Fluxes of CO₂ and N₂O were measured from both natural and experimentally augmented snowpacks during the winters of 1993 and 1994 on Niwot Ridge in the Colorado Front Range. Consistent snow cover insulated the soil surface from extreme air temperatures and allowed heterotrophic activity to continue through much of the winter. In contrast, soil remained frozen at sites with inconsistent snow cover and production did not begin until snowmelt. Fluxes were measured when soil temperatures under the snow ranged from –5°C to 0°C, but there was no significant relationship between flux for either gas and temperature within this range. While early developing snowpacks resulted in warmer minimum soil temperatures allowing production to continue for most of the winter, the highest CO₂ fluxes were recorded at sites which experienced a hard freeze before a consistent snowpack developed. Consequently, the seasonal flux of CO₂ –C from snow covered soils was related both to the severity of freeze and the duration of snow cover. Over-winter CO₂ –C loss ranged from 0.3 g C m⁻² season⁻¹ at sites characterized by inconsistent snow cover to 25.7 g C m⁻² season⁻¹ at sites that experienced a hard freeze followed by an extended period of snow cover. In contrast to the pattern observed with C loss, a hard freeze early in the winter did not result in greater N₂O–N loss. Both mean daily N₂O fluxes and the total over-winter N₂O–N loss were related to the length of time soils were covered by a consistent snowpack. Over-winter N₂O–N loss ranged from less 0.23 mg N m⁻² from the latest developing, short duration snowpacks to 16.90 mg N m⁻² from sites with early snow cover. These data suggest that over-winter heterotrophic activity in snow-covered soil has the potential to mineralize from less than 1% to greater than 25% of the carbon fixed in ANPP, while over-winter N₂O fluxes range from less than half to an order of magnitude higher than growing season fluxes. The variability in these fluxes suggests that small changes in climate which affect the timing of seasonal snow cover may have a large effect on C and N cycling in these environments. Received: 5 April 1996 / Accepted: 25 November 1996     

Predicting Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Soil Carbon from Changing Pasture to an Energy Crop

Bioenergy related land use change would likely alter biogeochemical cycles and global greenhouse gas budgets. Energy cane (Saccharum officinarum L.) is a sugarcane variety and an emerging biofuel feedstock for cellulosic bio-ethanol production. It has potential for high yields and can be grown on marginal land, which minimizes competition with grain and vegetable production. The DayCent biogeochemical model was parameterized to infer potential yields of energy cane and how changing land from grazed pasture to energy cane would affect greenhouse gas (CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O) fluxes and soil C pools. The model was used to simulate energy cane production on two soil types in central Florida, nutrient poor Spodosols and organic Histosols. Energy cane was productive on both soil types (yielding 46–76 Mg dry mass⋅ha⁻¹). Yields were maintained through three annual cropping cycles on Histosols but declined with each harvest on Spodosols. Overall, converting pasture to energy cane created a sink for GHGs on Spodosols and reduced the size of the GHG source on Histosols. This change was driven on both soil types by eliminating CH₄ emissions from cattle and by the large increase in C uptake by greater biomass production in energy cane relative to pasture. However, the change from pasture to energy cane caused Histosols to lose 4493 g CO₂ eq⋅m⁻² over 15 years of energy cane production. Cultivation of energy cane on former pasture on Spodosol soils in the southeast US has the potential for high biomass yield and the mitigation of GHG emissions.