What Factors Affect the Size of Chimpanzee Parties in the Kalinzu Forest,Uganda? Examination of Fruit Abundance and Number of Estrous Females

We examined factors affecting the size of chimpanzee parties in the Kalinzu Forest, Uganda. We found that the number of individuals in a party increased with observation time. Therefore, we employed two methods to reduce this bias: (1) we evaluated party size via the mean number of individuals observed in each 1-h period during the observation of a party (1-h party size), and (2) we used the number of all individuals observed in a party (1-day party size) and performed an analysis of covariance, with observation time of the party as the covariant. We examined factors that might affect party size: fruit abundance, fruit distribution, and number of estrous females. There was no relationship between party size and fruit abundance or distribution. Conversely, the number of males has a significant positive correlation with the number of estrous females, though there is no correlation with the number of anestrous females. These results suggest that males tended to join parties with more females in estrous, irrespective of differences in fruit availability.     

Seasonality and Socioecology: The Importance of Variation in Fruit Abundance to Bonobo Sociality

The assumption that nonseasonal, evergreen, rain forests contain more continuously available food resources than seasonal rain forests is fundamental to comparisons made between the socioecology of the male-bonded Pan troglodytes and the female-based social system of the Pan paniscus. Chimpanzee females may be less social due to the high costs of feeding competition, whereas in the more food-rich central African rain forests such as the Lomako forest, female bonobos can associate and socially bond. The Lomako Forest experiences two wet and two dry seasons a year. Data on fruit abundance and sociality show that despite monthly variation in fruit availability, there was no consistent seasonal variation in fruit abundance or dietary breadth. Bonobo use of nonfig fruits, figs, THV, and leaves did not follow seasonal patterns. Leaves and THV may act as complementary sources of plant protein and their use was inversely correlated. Monthly variation in fruit abundance was associated with a significant decrease in the number of males in a party but not in the number of females. Focal males were frequently solitary during 1 of the 3 months with the smallest party sizes. In contrast, females remained social with each other throughout the year. Therefore, seaonality at Lomako appeared to be less marked than at comparable chimpanzee sites, such that the variation in fruit abundance did not fall below a level that prohibits female sociality.     

Nest groups of wild bonobos at Wamba: selection of vegetation and tree species and relationships between nest group size and party size

We examined the location of nest groups, spatial distribution of nests within a nest group, and attributes of individual nests of wild bonobos at Wamba, Democratic Republic of Congo. We also examined the seasonal factors influencing nesting behavior and compared the nest group size with the 1 hr party size during daytime. We defined a nest group to be a cluster of nests that were built in the same evening and found within 30 m from the other nearest nest. Examination of the largest gap within a nest group suggested that 30 m was an acceptable cutoff value. Monthly rainfall or fruit abundance did not significantly influence the monthly mean nest group size. Nests were built in the swamp forest for as many as 13% observation days, suggesting the need for reevaluation of the use of swamp forest by bonobos. The use of swamp forest was influenced not by seasonal rainfall or fruit abundance, but by the fruiting of specific species. Preferred tree species for building nests accounted for 19.8% of standing trees, which suggested that the selection of sleeping sites was not largely restricted by the distribution of specific species. The mean 1 hr party size was almost identical through the day and was similar to the mean nest group size. Parties of bonobos sometimes split into smaller nest groups, especially when feeding on non‐preferred fruits during fruit scarcity. By contrast, when feeding on preferred fruits while ranging in large parties, they often aggregated to form even larger nest groups. When sleeping in small‐ or middle‐sized nest groups, they tended to aggregate the next morning. These tendencies may reflect the gregarious nature of bonobos who prefer to range or sleep together as far as circumstances allow. Am. J. Primatol. 72:575–586, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Chimpanzee grouping patterns and food availability in Mahale Mountains National Park,Tanzania

The aim of this study was to test for a correlation between party size and food (fruit) availability among the M group chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in the Mahale Mountains, Tanzania. Chimpanzee unit groups (or communities) show fission–fusion grouping patterns and form temporal parties. Fruit availability is assumed to be one of the important limiting factors in relation to the size of these parties. Different methods have been proposed to measure party size, but they all appear to focus mainly on two aspects of grouping phenomena. In “face-to-face parties”, party size is measured by scan sampling, whereas in “nomadic parties”, all members observed during a specific time period are counted. The mean monthly group size resulting from these two measures was compared with fruit availability, i.e. fruiting plant density and mean potential patch size. Nomadic party size was correlated with both values. Thus, party formation at this level was considered to be sensitive to overall fruit availability in the habitat. On the other hand, face-to-face party size remained stable and showed weak or no correlations with density and potential patch size. Although large patches are available during the peak fruiting season, Mahale chimpanzees depend on the liana species Saba comorensis, which, when fruiting, encourages individuals to spread out to eat. Thus, the lack of correlation between face-to-face-party size and fruit availability was attributed to the influence of physical limitations countervailing the fluctuation in fruit availability. Maximum face-to-face party size relative to unit-group size, regarded as the cohesiveness of a unit group, was compared among sites. The values differed largely: Mahale groups M and K, Bossou, and, in some years, Budongo, showed high cohesiveness, while others remained low. Thus, the distribution of the most important food during the fruiting season in each study site may be a crucial factor in the grouping phenomena of chimpanzees.     

A quantitative comparison of terrestrial herbaceous food consumption by Pan paniscus in the Lomako Forest,Zaire, and Pan troglodytes in the Kibale Forest,Uganda

Differences in the social organization and dental morphology of Pan paniscus (bonobos) and Pan troglodytes (chimpanzees) have been related to differences in the spatiotemporal availability of food and its exploitation. The presence of abundant terrestrial herbaceous vegetation (THV) in the bonobo's habitat and the apparent greater reliance on herbs for food has been used to explain differences in party size and, by extension, social organization. Using fecal analysis, we assess quantitatively the amount of herbaceous foods consumed by Pan paniscus in the Lomako Forest, Zaire, compared to similar data for Pan troglodytes in the Kibale Forest, Uganda. We examine this data in the context of spatiotemporal patterns of availability of herbaceous foods and fruit, as well as their nutritional content. The results support the suggestion that bonobos consume more herbaceous food than do the Kibale chimpanzees and that these foods are more prevalent in the bonobo's habitat than in the Kibale Forest. However, temporal changes in fruit availability and herb consumption, along with nutritional analyses, suggest that chimpanzees consume herbs as a fallback source of carbohydrates, whereas bonobos consume herbs as a source of protein regardless of season or fruit abundance. Available data suggest that party size while feeding on terrestrial herbs is restricted at both sites, but a determination of the relative strength of this constraint is not possible at this time. Difficulties in methods used for data collection are discussed and areas where more information is needed are highlighted. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Factors Affecting Party Size in Chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains

We studied factors affecting party size and composition of wild chimpanzees at Mahale (M group) over an 11-month period. Parties with 1–5 individuals were most frequent (37.8%; 153/405 parties); they included 94.7% of all male parties (n = 76) and 81.3% of all female parties (n = 75). The median of monthly values was the standard for analysis. We divided the year into four periods based on the median size of monthly bisexual parties (30.9 individuals; includes both males and females): monthly bisexual party sizes were larger in May–June (period II) and October–January (period IV) and smaller in February–April (period I) and July–September (period III). Only bisexual parties changed in size with period. The number of fruit items (=species) eaten was fewer in periods II and IV when abundance per item appeared to be great. The sizes of bisexual parties, which included cycling females with maximal anogenital swelling, were larger, and their representation (%) in all bisexual parties was greater in periods III and IV. The numbers of both cycling females and cycling females with maximal anogenital swelling were also larger in periods III and IV. The percentage of cycling females with maximal anogenital swelling was greater in periods II and III. The results of this study and those of Nishida (1979) suggest that seasonal variation in party size of Mahale chimpanzees maintains a relatively consistent annual cycle. The factors assumed to affect party sizes are fruit availability and the presence of cycling females with maximal anogenital swelling.     

Forest cover,hunting pressure,and fruit availability influence seed dispersal in a forest‐savanna mosaic in the Congo Basin

Forest fragmentation, reduced forest cover, and hunting pressure are the main threats affecting animal‐mediated seed dispersal. However, their combined effects on seed dispersal rates have been simultaneously investigated only rarely, and never in Africa. We aimed to disentangle the effects of forest cover, hunting pressure, frugivore abundance, and fruit availability at the local and landscape scales on the seed dispersal rates of Staudtia kamerunensis (Myristicaceae). To estimate the percentages of seed dispersal failure (undispersed seeds), we quantitated fruit remains below fruiting trees distributed across five contrasting sites in a semi‐natural forest‐savanna mosaic in the Democratic Republic of Congo. We used statistical analyses accounting for spatial autocorrelation and found that forest cover in the surrounding landscape, hunting level, the associated abundance of dispersers, and fruit availability all had significant effects on the percentage of seed dispersal failure. The combination of high fruit availability and reduced abundance of seed dispersers could accelerate seed disperser satiation, causing the seed dispersal system to be saturated. Our study highlights how two major factors associated with anthropogenic activities, forest cover and hunting, affect seed dispersal by animals. These findings could have far‐reaching implications for our understanding of tree‐frugivore interactions and the conservation of tropical communities.     

Fruit availability and chimpanzee party size at Kahuzi montane forest,Democratic Republic of Congo

The effect of fruit availability on chimpanzee party size was investigated in the montane forest of Kahuzi. Seasonal variation in both fruit availability and party size was examined. Fruit abundance per se does not affect chimpanzee party size. However, seasonality and distribution patterns of fruits are both determinant ecological factors that control the size of chimpanzee parties at Kahuzi. There was no correlation between fruit abundance and the spatial distribution of fruits. When fruits were clumped and available in large amounts for a long period, chimpanzee party size increased, or otherwise decreased when fruits were highly available for only a limited period. Tree species that produced only a small amount of ripe fruit throughout the year did not affect the foraging party size of chimpanzees. Temporal and spatial variability in fruit abundance seems to constrain grouping patterns of chimpanzees at Kahuzi more so than in other chimpanzee habitats previously described.     

The role of termites in the decomposition of wood and leaf litter in the Southern Guinea savanna of Nigeria

Summary The number of flowers produced by inflorescences of Yucca whipplei (Agavaceae) consistently exceeds the number of fruits produced by about one order of magnitude. To determine the factors responsible for low fruit set, the relation between pollinator availability, the amount of resources spent on reproduction (as indicated by inflorescence size), and the number of fruits matured was studied during 1978 and 1979 at 18 locations in chaparral, coastal sage scrub, and desert scrub communities of southern California.The following results support the conclusion that pollinators do not usually limit fruit production in Yucca whipplei. Rather, fruit production is limited by the amount of resources available to support developing fruits. (1) Fruit production is positively correlated with inflorescence size both within and between populations. The average size of inflorescence for a population is an excellent predictor of mean fruit production. Furthermore, 54% of the total variance in fruit production of individual plants can be explained by inflorescence size. (2) In contrast, although fruit production within most populations is positively correlated with an index of the number of pollinator visits to an inflorescence, the relative abundance of pollinators for a population is a poor predictor of mean fruit production, and only 9% of the total variance in fruit production can be explained by the visitation index. Furthermore, at four sites studied for two years, there was little change in average inflorescence size or fruit production from 1978 to 1979, despite large differences in relative abundance of pollinators at each of the sites. (3) Based on geographic proximity, and physiographic and vegetational similarities, study sites were grouped into regional clusters. Both inflorescence size and fruit production varied considerably between regions. Of the total variation in fruit production, 27% can be attributed to differences between regions. Most of this variation is the result of regional differences in inflorescence size, which in turn influence fruit production.Why does Yucca whipplei produce such large inflorescences if so few fruits can be supported? Two relevant hypotheses are discussed: (1) the floral display is the result of selection for pollen dissemination at the expense of fruit set; and (2) the floral display is the result of selection for a bet-hedging strategy either to increase the probability of adequate pollination when pollinators are unusually rare, or to allow individuals to support more fruits when resources are unusually abundant.     

Density dependence constrains mean growth rate while enhancing individual size variation in stream salmonids

The objective of this study was to elucidate the effects of density dependence on the individual size variation of brown trout (Salmo trutta) juveniles. Recruitment (the abundance of the youngest juveniles in May when they were 2 months old); the mean size attained by those individuals in September (6 months old) and the corresponding size variability around the mean size quantified with the coefficient of variation (CV) were examined in 22 year-classes at seven sites of two contrasting tributaries of the Rio Esva drainage (north-western Spain). Both mean size and CV tended to be site-specific but density dependence in the form of recruitment dependence affected both mean size and CV: the mean size depicted negative power relationships with increased recruitment whereas the CV increased positively with increased recruitment. However, this pattern differed among sites. At two out of seven sites, there was no obvious relationship between the mean size and recruitment. The CV increased positively with increased recruitment at all sites, although at several sites the CV described linear relationships and at others described power relationships. As a consequence, the stronger effects of density dependence on mean size occurred at low densities with minor effects at high densities, whereas density dependence operated on CV with continuous effects within the whole range of recruitment variation except at several sites where lower effects occurred at high densities. Thus, the occurrence, shape and intensity of competitive interactions underlying density dependence as a major cause of size variation differed across temporal and spatial scales.     

Spatial variability in the vegetation structure and composition of an East African rain forest

We conducted a study of spatial variation in tree community structure and composition in the Kakamega Forest of western Kenya. We compared the tree communities at two sites, Buyangu and Isecheno, separated by approximately 11 km of contiguous forest. All trees ≥15 cm d.b.h. were censused along transects covering 4.95 ha at Buyangu and 4.15 ha at Isecheno. The structure of the forest at the two sites was similar as mean d.b.h. was comparable and stem size class distribution did not differ significantly. However, species richness and stem density were both much higher at Buyangu. The disparity in stem density may be because of the greater abundance at Isecheno of a semi‐woody undergrowth species, Brillantaisia nitens Lindau, believed to inhibit the establishment of tree seedlings. Floristic composition varied strikingly between sites, with 52% of the species occurring only at one site. Densities of those species present at both sites often differed markedly between sites. Potential sources of these intersite differences in floristic composition include small disparities in rainfall, soil composition, elevation, and temperature as well as past differences in anthropogenic disturbance and in large mammal distribution and abundance. Floristic differences between Buyangu and Isecheno appear to be at least partly responsible for the substantial dietary differences between redtail monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius Audebert) at these sites.     

云南六库桔小实蝇成虫种群数量变动及其影响因子分析

应用诱蝇谜引诱剂诱捕法于2003-2005年调查了云南六库桔小实蝇成虫种群动态,系统分析了气候因子及寄主植物对该种群变动的影响。研究结果表明：云南六库桔小实蝇种群发生呈季节性,仅出现于3-12月,成虫消长基本为单峰型,高峰出现在7月。六库桔小实蝇种群数量与气温、降雨量和月雨日数等气象因子有密切关系。决定系数和通径分析结果显示,月降雨量是影响六库桔小实蝇种群动态的主要决策因素;月平均气温和月平均最低气温是影响种群数量变动的主要限制因素,其中,月平均最低温度是间接影响种群数量变动的重要指标。主成分分析筛选出低温条件主成分,其累积方差贡献率达77.65%。逐步回归分析也证实,影响六库桔小实蝇种群月变动的主要气象因子是月平均气温和月平均最低气温。综合分析认为,低温是导致六库桔小实蝇季节性发生的关键因素。     

Do local conspecific density and floral display size influence fruit set via pollinator visitation in Orchis militaris?

Plant density varies naturally, from isolated plants to clumped individuals, and this can influence pollinator foraging behaviour and plant reproductive success. In addition, the effect of conspecific density on reproduction may depend on the pollination system, and deceptive species differ from rewarding ones in this regard, a high density being often associated with low fruit set in deceptive plants. In our study, we aimed to determine how local conspecific density and floral display size (i.e. number of flowers per plant) affect fruit set in a deceptive orchid (Orchis militaris) through changes in pollinator visitation. We measured fruit set in a natural population and recorded pollinator abundance and foraging behaviour within plots of different O. militaris densities. Detailed data were recorded for the most abundant potential pollinators of O. militaris, i.e. solitary bees. Floral display size was negatively correlated to fruit set in medium‐density plots, but uncorrelated in low‐ and high‐density plots. Plot density had no effect on solitary bee abundance and visitation, which may be due to low pollinator abundance within the study site. The proportion of visited flowers per inflorescence was negatively influenced by floral display size, which is in line with previous studies. In addition, solitary bees spent decreasing time in successive flowers within an inflorescence, and the time spent per flower was negatively affected by ambient temperature. Our results suggest that pollinator behaviour during visitation is poorly linked to pollen deposition and reproductive success in O. militaris.     

Western lowland gorilla diet and resource availability: new evidence,cross-site comparisons,and reflections on indirect sampling methods

We describe the resource availability and diet of western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) from a new study site in the Central African Republic and Republic of Congo based on 3 years of study. The results, based on 715 fecal samples and 617 days of feeding trails, were similar to those reported from three other sites, in spite of differences in herb and fruit availability. Staple foods (consumed year-round) included high-quality herbs (Haumania), swamp herbs (when present), and a minimal diversity of fruit. A variety of fruits (average of 3.5 species per day and 10 per month) were selectively consumed; gorillas ignored some common fruits and incorporated rare fruits to a degree higher than predicted based on availability. During periods of fruit abundance, fruit constituted most of the diet. When succulent fruits were unavailable, gorillas used low-quality herbs (i.e., low-protein), bark, and more fibrous fruits as fallback foods. Fibrous fruit species, such as Duboscia macrocarpa and Klainedoxa gabonensis, were particularly important to gorillas at Mondika and other sites as fallbacks. The densities of these two species are similar across sites for which data are available, in spite of major differences in forest structure, suggesting they may be key species in determining gorilla density. No sex difference in diet was detected. Such little variation in western lowland gorilla diet across sites and between sexes was unexpected and may partly reflect limitations of indirect sampling.     

Bed and bed-site reuse by western lowland gorillas (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Gorilla g. gorilla</Emphasis>) in Moukalaba-Doudou National Park,Gabon

In this paper we describe bed (nest) and bed-site reuse by western lowland gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla) in Moukalaba-Doudou National Park, south-eastern Gabon. During an eight-month study 44 bed sites and 506 beds were found. Among these, 38.6% of bed sites and 4.1% of beds were reused. We analyzed the monthly frequency of bed-site reuse in relation to rainfall, fruit abundance, and fruit consumption by the gorillas. The different frequency of bed-site reuse in the rainy and dry seasons was not significant. More bed-site reuse was observed during the fruiting season than during the non-fruiting season. Results from fecal analysis suggested that gorillas ate more fruit in the fruiting season than in the non-fruiting season. The frugivorous diet of western gorillas may possibly cause gorillas to stay in some areas and, consequently, reuse their bed sites. Reuse of bed sites by gorillas suggests their frequent return to an area where preferred fruit is readily available. A higher percentage of arboreal beds may also affect bed-site reuse, because of the shortage of bed material.     

Forest elephant crisis in the Congo Basin

Debate over repealing the ivory trade ban dominates conferences of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Resolving this controversy requires accurate estimates of elephant population trends and rates of illegal killing. Most African savannah elephant populations are well known; however, the status of forest elephants, perhaps a distinct species, in the vast Congo Basin is unclear. We assessed population status and incidence of poaching from line-transect and reconnaissance surveys conducted on foot in sites throughout the Congo Basin. Results indicate that the abundance and range of forest elephants are threatened from poaching that is most intense close to roads. The probability of elephant presence increased with distance to roads, whereas that of human signs declined. At all distances from roads, the probability of elephant occurrence was always higher inside, compared to outside, protected areas, whereas that of humans was always lower. Inside protected areas, forest elephant density was correlated with the size of remote forest core, but not with size of protected area. Forest elephants must be prioritised in elephant management planning at the continental scale.     

Floristic heterogeneity at Ngogo,Kibale National Park,Uganda and possible implications for habitat use by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

Tropical forest tree communities exhibit heterogeneity at multiple spatial scales, with important implications for animals relying on these resources. However, different organisms may perceive heterogeneity in the floristic community in very different ways. Here, we characterize the overall extent of heterogeneity in the floristic community at Ngogo, in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Also, using information from studies on the diet of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) inhabiting Ngogo, we quantify the extent to which the habitat is likely perceived as heterogeneous by this species. The forest as a whole is slightly more diverse than comparable sites in the Congo Basin, but this diversity is driven by a relatively high proportion of rare species represented by few individuals. From the perspective of chimpanzees, the forest is, unsurprisingly, even more heterogeneous. Species that provide fruit for chimpanzees during times of low overall fruit abundance and that display interindividual synchrony in fruiting were the most common chimpanzee resource in our sample, whereas species that provide fruit during times of low overall fruit abundance and that display asynchronous fruiting were the least common. We discuss the implications of the differences in density and distribution of various classes of resources for chimpanzee habitat use and foraging efficiency.     

Bushmeat,over-fishing and covariates explaining fish abundance declines in the Central Congo Basin

Fish stocks are declining at alarming rates in the Central African forests but little is known about patterns of fishing pressure for different areas. To contribute to the understanding of covariates that could explain these trends, this study documented the relative abundances of fish in eleven sites in the western Democratic Republic of Congo in relation to human density, distance from the nearest markets and mean numbers of fishing nets. Linear regression indicated that, taken alone, 88 % of observed differences in fish relative abundance correlated with the mean number of fishing nets and 60 % of these differences were attributable to distance from the nearest market. Human density was marginally associated with fish abundance. The study also shows that fish and wildlife relative abundances followed the same trends: where more wildlife species remain, there are more abundant fish stocks. The two conservation messages of this paper are that, as is the case for bushmeat, fishing becomes a problem when the commercial market is its prime driver and a solution to the bushmeat crisis could also reduce over-fishing.     

Increased Frequency of Intergroup Encounters in Wild Bonobos (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan paniscus</Emphasis>) Around the Yearly Peak in Fruit Abundance at Wamba

Intergroup interactions in primates vary from nonagonistic to severely aggressive. Food resources and fertile females cause intergroup aggression when groups defend resources and mates from other groups. Peaceful intermingling during intergroup encounters is rare but has been reported in several primates, including bonobos (Pan paniscus). Although intergroup encounters in bonobos occur at both nonprovisioned and provisioned sites, provisioning may be one factor responsible for frequent intergroup encounters. We studied intergroup encounters between one bonobo group (PE) and its neighboring groups, one semihabituated and two habituated groups, under nonprovisioned conditions in 2010–2015 at Wamba, Democratic Republic of Congo. We examined whether fruit abundance and females with sexual swellings influenced encounter frequency. PE group encountered the other groups on 7.1 days (mean, range: 0–19) per month. Up to four different groups met simultaneously at one location. Encounter frequency was highest around the yearly peak in fruit abundance, suggesting that reduced food competition is linked to increased encounter frequency. During periods of relatively low fruit abundance, the probability of an encounter was higher when a higher number of adult females with maximum sexual swellings were present, suggesting that the attractiveness of females with sexual swellings promoted group encounters during periods of relatively low fruit abundance. These findings suggest that both competition for food and the availability of females with sexual swellings influence encounter frequency in bonobos.     

Phenology and abundance of date palm mite Oligonychus afrasiaticus (McGregor) (Acari: Tetranychidae) in Riyadh,Saudi Arabia

In the present study, we evaluated the effect of management practices, fruit season, host habitats (young and old fronds, date fruits and grasses), and temperature on the phenology and abundance of the date palm mite (DPM). The study was conducted in two date palm orchards (two plots each): a managed and an unmanaged plot. The phenology of DPM was assessed based on adult cumulative mite days (ACMDs), while mean mite density was used to assess the mite abundance on different host habitats. The ACMDs and mean mite density were significantly different between managed and unmanaged plots on different host habitats in both fruiting and off-seasons. The date fruits had highest ACMDs during fruiting season. While young fronds had significantly higher ACMDs than on old fronds an grasses during both seasons in both plots.. The temperature and season type significantly affected the mean density of DPM eggs and adults. There was a significant effect of host habitats mean density of DPM eggs and immatures. Based on the adult phenology and abundance of DPM, the mite overwinters in young fronds and aerial offshoots of infested date palm trees. These overwintering DPM caused the seasonal date fruit infestation, each year. Additionally, different phytophagous and predatory mites, which co-occur with DPM, and were found on different host habitats affected the phenology and abundance of DPM. Moreover, the change in DPM body color was related to the host habitat that they fed in. Exceptionally, the brown color of females collected during the winter season could be due to physiological changes due to low temperature. In DPM males collected from different host habitats throughout the study, some morphological variations in the width of the knob, height of the hook, and the angle between the knob axis and dorsal margin of the shaft were also recorded. The results of this study suggest that young fronds and grasses are the suitable sites for DPM survival and overwintering. Hence, the management practices, early in the fruit season and/or during off fruit winter months, should be directed towards these habitats. These could provide efficient reduction in seasonal infestation of DPM.