srDna-based taxonomic affinities of algal symbionts from a planktonic foraminifer and a solitary radiolarian

Planktonic sarcodines (acantharia, radiolaria, and planktonic foraminifera) are oceanic amoeboid protozoa that often harbor a variety of microalgae as intracellular symbionts. The identity and function of these endosymbiotic algae have intrigued and perplexed biologists for more than a century. The most conspicuous and well‐studied symbiotic algae of planktonic foraminifera and radiolaria are dinoflagellates, but a variety of nondinoflagellate taxa have also been reported. Ultrastructural features have been used to characterize some of these nondinoflagellate algae, but rarely has this led to clear taxonomic affiliations. We analyzed the nuclear small subunit ribosomal DNA (srDNA) isolated from the symbionts of the spinose planktonic foraminiferan Globigerinella siphonifera d'Orbigny (=Globigerinella aequilateralis Brady) and a solitary radiolarian (Spongodrymus sp. Haeckel) in order to determine the identity of these symbionts. The small coccoid algae isolated from G. siphonifera correspond to the Type I symbionts described by Faber et al. (1988) . Phylogenetic analysis of the srDNA sequences places these symbionts within the prymnesiophyte (haptophyte) lineage, closer to Prymnesium Conrad than to Phaeocystis Lagerheim. To our knowledge, this is the first confirmed case of a symbiotic prymnesiophyte. In addition, we were able to examine the level of sequence heterogeneity between symbionts isolated from different individuals of a single host species. The three isolates in this study had srDNA sequences that were almost identical, indicating that the three were all of the same species. Very green symbiotic algae were isolated from three solitary radiolaria identified as species of Spongodrymus. The symbiont srDNA sequences from the three individual hosts were identical to each other, again implicating a single species of algae in that symbiotic association. These symbionts are prasinophytes most closely related to the clade containing Tetaselmis convolutae Norris, Hori et Chihara. Tetraselmis convolutae is the algal symbiont of the marine flatworm, Convolutae roscoffensis Graff.     

Functional versatility supports coral reef biodiversity

We explore the role of specialization in supporting species coexistence in high-diversity ecosystems. Using a novel ordination-based method to quantify specialist and generalist feeding structures and diets we examined the relationship between morphology and diet in 120 wrasses and parrotfishes from the Great Barrier Reef. We find that wrasses, despite their morphological diversity, exhibit weak links between morphology and diet and that specialist morphologies do not necessarily equate to specialized diets. The dominant pattern shows extensive overlap in morphology (functional morphospace occupation) among trophic groups; fish with a given morphology may have a number of feeding modes. Such trophic versatility may lay the foundation for both the origins and maintenance of high biodiversity on coral reefs.     

Community structure and food web based on stable isotopes (δN and δC) analysis of a North Eastern Atlantic maerl bed

Maerl beds are highly biodiverse biogenic substrata that have been receiving increasing attention in the last decade. Although maerl beds represent important nursery areas for commercial fishes and molluscs, little is known on the trophic web of their communities. Community structure parameters of maerl bed of the Bay of Brest (species richness, abundance, biomass and dominating species) were studied in parallel with the carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of their main benthic species (macrofaunal, and megafaunal organisms) in order to assess the trophic levels and differences in the potential food sources of maerl inhabitants. The major potential sources of energy were identified to originate either from epiphytic macroalgae and microphytobenthos both growing on maerl thalli, together with sedimenting (sedimentary) particulate organic matter (POM) originating from the water column. The majority of the macro- and megafaunal organisms investigated were filter feeders, selective-deposit feeders and predators/scavengers. Filter feeders fall into three different groups representing different trophic pathways (i) sponges feeding directly on POM (water column filter feeders I), (ii) ascidians and holothurians feeding on POM and probably captured pelagic preys (water column filter feeders II), and (iii) filter feeding molluscs and crustaceans were hypothesised to feed on microphytobenthos or on decaying sedimented POM (Interface filter feeders). Selective deposit feeders were also divided into two subgroups. Carnivores were also distinguished between those with scavenging habits and true predators. Coupling of the trophic levels observed with the community biomass structure revealed that most of the benthic biomass derives its food from detritic sedimented POM and/or microphytobenthos, with interface filter feeders (23% of the biomass), selective deposit feeders (12%). Carnivores made up to 14% of the total biomass. Generally stable isotopes ratio mean values overlap and cover a large range within feeding types, indicating a strong overlap in food sources and a high degree of complexity of the food web presumably due to the diversity of the potential food sources.     

To feed or to breed: morphological constraints of mouthbrooding in coral reef cardinalfishes

Functionally coupled biomechanical systems are widespread in nature and are viewed as major constraints on evolutionary diversification, yet there have been few attempts to explore the implications of performing multiple functions within a single anatomical structure. Paternally mouthbrooding cardinalfishes present an ideal system to investigate the constraints of functional coupling as the oral jaws of male fishes are directly responsible for both feeding and reproductive functions. To test the effects of (i) mouthbrooding on feeding and (ii) feeding on reproductive potential we compared the feeding apparatus between sexes of nine species of cardinalfish and compared brood characteristics among species from different trophic groups, respectively. Mouthbrooding was strongly associated with the morphology of the feeding apparatus in males. Male cardinalfishes possessed longer heads, snouts and jaws than female conspecifics irrespective of body size, trophic group or evolutionary history. Conversely, reproductive potential also appeared to be related to trophic morphology. Piscivorous cardinalfishes produced larger, but fewer eggs, and had smaller brood volumes than species from the two invertebrate feeding groups. These interrelationships suggest that feeding and reproduction in the mouth of cardinalfishes may be tightly coupled. If so this may, in part, have contributed to the limited morphological diversification exhibited by cardinalfishes.     

Stable isotope analysis indicates a lack of inter- and intra-specific dietary redundancy among ecologically important coral reef fishes

Parrotfish are critical consumers on coral reefs, mediating the balance between algae and corals, and are often categorised into three functional groups based on adult morphology and feeding behaviour. We used stable isotope analysis (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) to investigate size-related ontogenetic dietary changes in multiple species of parrotfish on coral reefs around Zanzibar. We compared signatures among species and functional groups (scrapers, excavators and browsers) as well as ontogenetic stages (immature, initial and terminal phase) within species. Stable isotope analysis suggests that ontogenetic dietary shifts occurred in seven of the nine species examined; larger individuals had enriched δ¹³C values, with no relationship between size and δ¹⁵N. The relationship between fish length and δ¹³C signature was maintained when species were categorised as scrapers and excavators, but was more pronounced for scrapers than excavators, indicating stronger ontogenetic changes. Isotopic mixing models classified the initial phase of both the most abundant excavator (Chlorurus sordidus) as a scraper and the immature stage of the scraper Scarus ghobban (the largest species) as an excavator, indicating that diet relates to size rather than taxonomy. The results indicate that parrotfish may show similar intra-group changes in diet with length, but that their trophic ecology is more complex than suggested by morphology alone. Stable isotope analyses indicate that feeding ecology may differ among species within functional groups, and according to ontogenetic stage within a species.     

Review Functional morphology as an aid in determining trophic behaviour: the placement of astigmatic mites in food webs of water-filled tree-hole communities

The arthropod communities of phytotelmata (plant-held waters) are considered excellent subjects for studying and testing community theory. Food webs constructed for phytotelm communities, however, usually exclude mites or determine their placement based on little, if any, actual knowledge of their trophic behaviour. Although individually small, many acarine species attain high population levels and therefore may be important as prey for other inhabitants, as processing chain species in commensal relationships and as competitors of the larger tree-hole inhabitants. An understanding of the trophic relationships of acarine inhabitants is therefore essential to an understanding of the dynamics of phytotelm communities. Studies emphasizing the functional morphology of mouth parts of astigmatic species inhabiting water-filled tree holes in the eastern USA and in Queensland, Australia, reveal a diversity of trophic groups. Among these are 'shredders' who ingest leaf material and associated microbes by biting off chunks of leaves, 'scrapers' (= grazers) who crop fungal hyphae and/or other microbes and detritus from the substrate surface and 'collectors' who filter microbes and fine particulate matter from the water. This information allows for the more exact placement of acarine inhabitants in food webs of water-filled tree holes.     

Versatility and specialization in labrid fishes: ecomorphological implications

Summary The term specialized has been used to describe species that possess unique functional attributes and/or a narrow, stereotyped range of attributes, but there are few comparative functional analyses of specialists and generalists. If species with functional morphological specializations are capable of functioning over a broad range, the link between morphology and ecology may be relaxed under certain environmental conditions. In this study, high-speed films of jaw movements during prey capture were compared statistically for three coexisting coral reef fish species in the family Labridae, one trophic specialist and two trophic generalists. The trophic specialist possessed a unique functional feature related to the movement of the hyoid in the floor of the mouth, while the trophic generalists were not observed to possess any functional specializations. All three species showed functional versatility in that they were able to adjust their prey capture mechanism in response to the evasive potential of the prey. The functional versatility of trophic specialists has implications for ecomorphological studies, since species characterized as possessing unique functional or morphological features may demonstrate marked flexibility in ecological variables such as diet or foraging behavior, decreasing the likelihood of identifying correlations between morphology and ecology.     

The response of a three trophic level soil food web to the identity and diversity of plant species and functional groups

Despite considerable recent interest in how biodiversity may influence ecosystem properties, the issue of how plant diversity and composition may affect multiple trophic levels in soil food webs remains essentially unexplored. We conducted a glasshouse experiment in which three plant species of each of three functional groups (grasses, N‐fixing legumes and forbs) were grown in monoculture and in mixtures of three species (with the three species being in the same or different functional groups) and all nine species. Plant species identity had important effects on the biomasses or population densities of belowground primary consumers (microbial biomass, herbivorous nematodes) and two groups of secondary consumers (microbe‐feeding nematodes and enchytraeids); the third consumer trophic level (predatory nematodes) was marginally not significantly affected at P=0.05. Plant species also influenced the relative importance of the bacterial‐based and fungal‐based energy channels for both the primary and secondary consumer trophic levels. Within‐group diversity of only the soil microflora and herbivorous nematodes (both representing the basal consumer trophic level) were affected by plant species identity. However, community composition within all trophic groupings considered (herbivorous nematodes, microbes, microbe‐feeding nematodes, predatory nematodes) was strongly influenced by what plant species were present. Despite the strong responses of the soil biota to plant species identity, there were few effects of plant species or functional group richness on any of the belowground response variables measured. Further, net primary productivity (NPP) was unaffected by plant diversity. Since some belowground response variables were correlated with NPP across treatments, it is suggested that belowground responses to plant diversity might become more apparent in situations when NPP itself responds to plant diversity. Our results point to plant species identity as having important multitrophic effects on soil food webs, both at the whole trophic group and within‐group levels of resolution, and suggest that differences in plant traits across species may be important in driving the decomposer subsystem.     

Evolutionary convergence in Neotropical cichlids and Nearctic centrarchids: evidence from morphology,diet, and stable isotope analysis

Despite divergent evolutionary histories, Neotropical cichlids (Cichlidae) and Nearctic sunfishes (Centrarchidae) appear to have similar functional morphotypes and occupy similar ecological niches. We applied an integrative approach analyzing morphological traits, stomach contents, and stable isotope ratios (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) to investigate whether local assemblages of cichlids (Venezuela, Peru) and centrarchids (Texas) reveal one‐to‐one patterns of morphological and ecological convergence. Multivariate ordinations performed on diet and morphology datasets identified a broad overlap between cichlid and centrarchid assemblages. The functional morphology of the two groups has diversified in a convergent manner within the confines of ram‐suction modes of prey ingestion. Both groups had the same set of ecomorph types that corresponded to the same trophic niches, including substrate‐sifting invertivores, epibenthic invertebrate gleaners, and piscivores; the one exception was a molluscivorous sunfish, comprising a niche that was not represented in the two cichlid assemblages. Estimates of trophic positions based on stable isotope analysis revealed convergent vertical trophic structure; with few exceptions, fishes with similar morphologies had similar trophic positions. Large‐bodied piscivores had highest trophic positions, whereas small and medium‐bodied generalists and invertivores had low to intermediate trophic positions. Consistent patterns of ecomorphological convergence in these two perciform groups provide strong evidence for adaptation involving constrains in functional morphology associated with feeding. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, 109 , 146–164.     

海南热带雨林国家公园不同植被类型的大型真菌多样性

为揭示海南热带雨林国家公园大型真菌多样性及不同植被类型对真菌群落的影响, 本研究于2020年和2021年湿季对海南热带雨林国家公园内7个管理局辖区开展了大型真菌多样性调查, 比较了不同植被类型(山地雨林、低地雨林、低地雨林次生林、人工林)的大型真菌生活型(共生型、腐生型)组成差异。从设置的58条1 km长的样带内采集到1,869份子实体标本, 根据子实体形态与ITS rDNA序列分析, 从中鉴定出562种真菌, 涉及17目64科174属, 其中80%以上的物种由伞菌目、牛肝菌目、红菇目、多孔菌目、鸡油菌目、锈革孔菌目和炭角菌目构成。大型真菌的营养型以腐生型(占48.2%物种)和共生型(44.8%)为主。每条样带的平均物种丰富度和多度以中海拔的山地雨林最高, 分别为28 ± 5种和33 ± 6个, 而人工林最低, 分别为11 ± 1种和11 ± 2个。植被类型主要影响共生型大型真菌物种丰富度(P = 0.026)和子实体多度(P = 0.019)及Shannon-Wiener多样性(P = 0.028), 但对腐生型大型真菌的影响并不显著。多响应置换过程(multiple response permutation procedure, MRPP)检验结果表明, 不同植被类型对共生型与腐生型大型真菌群落物种组成均有显著影响(腐生型: P = 0.004, 共生型: P = 0.041)。冗余分析(redundancy analysis, RDA)的结果表明, 植被类型对腐生型和共生型真菌群落物种组成差异的解释度均较低(共生型: R² = 0.068, P = 0.004; 腐生型: R² = 0.067, P = 0.004)。海拔仅对腐生型真菌群落物种组成产生微弱影响(R² = 0.029, P = 0.001), 而对共生型真菌影响不显著(R² = 0.024, P = 0.072)。在不同保护地之间, 共生型(R² = 0.148, P = 0.001)与腐生型(R² = 0.123, P = 0.002)真菌物种组成均具显著差异; 基于样带‒真菌矩阵的网络图显示, 海南热带雨林国家公园内尖峰岭、霸王岭、五指山等国家级自然保护区的山地雨林是共生型大型真菌多样性较高区域, 应作为共生型真菌与宿主的优先保护区域。     

Highly similar microbial communities are shared among related and trophically similar ant species

Ants dominate many terrestrial ecosystems, yet we know little about their nutritional physiology and ecology. While traditionally viewed as predators and scavengers, recent isotopic studies revealed that many dominant ant species are functional herbivores. As with other insects with nitrogen-poor diets, it is hypothesized that these ants rely on symbiotic bacteria for nutritional supplementation. In this study, we used cloning and 16S sequencing to further characterize the bacterial flora of several herbivorous ants, while also examining the beta diversity of bacterial communities within and between ant species from different trophic levels. Through estimating phylogenetic overlap between these communities, we tested the hypothesis that ecologically or phylogenetically similar groups of ants harbor similar microbial flora. Our findings reveal: (i) clear differences in bacterial communities harbored by predatory and herbivorous ants; (ii) notable similarities among communities from distantly related herbivorous ants and (iii) similar communities shared by different predatory army ant species. Focusing on one herbivorous ant tribe, the Cephalotini, we detected five major bacterial taxa that likely represent the core microbiota. Metabolic functions of bacterial relatives suggest that these microbes may play roles in fixing, recycling, or upgrading nitrogen. Overall, our findings reveal that similar microbial communities are harbored by ants from similar trophic niches and, to a greater extent, by related ants from the same colonies, species, genera, and tribes. These trends hint at coevolved histories between ants and microbes, suggesting new possibilities for roles of bacteria in the evolution of both herbivores and carnivores from the ant family Formicidae.     

Bird abundance and species richness on Florida lakes: influence of trophic status,lake morphology,and aquatic macrophytes

Data from 46 Florida lakes were used to examine relationships between bird abundance (numbers and biomass) and species richness, and lake trophic status, lake morphology and aquatic macrophyte abundance. Average annual bird numbers ranged from 7 to 800 birds km^–2 and bird biomass ranged from 1 to 465 kg km^–2. Total species richness ranged from 1 to 30 species per lake. Annual average bird numbers and biomass were positively correlated to lake trophic status as assessed by total phosphorus (r = 0.61), total nitrogen (r = 0.60) and chlorophyll a (r = 0.56) concentrations. Species richness was positively correlated to lake area (r = 0.86) and trophic status (r = 0.64 for total phosphorus concentrations). The percentage of the total annual phosphorus load contributed to 14 Florida lakes by bird populations was low averaging 2.4%. Bird populations using Florida lakes, therefore, do not significantly impact the trophic status of the lakes under natural situations, but lake trophic status is a major factor influencing bird abundance and species richness on lakes. Bird abundance and species richness were not significantly correlated to other lake morphology or aquatic macrophyte parameters after the effects of lake area and trophic status were accounted for using stepwise multiple regression. The lack of significant relations between annual average bird abundance and species richness and macrophyte abundance seems to be related to changes in bird species composition. Bird abundance and species richness remain relatively stable as macrophyte abundance increases, but birds that use open-water habitats (e.g., double-crested cormorant, Phalacrocorax auritus) are replaced by species that use macrophyte communities (e.g., ring-necked duck, Aythya collaris).     

Ecomorphology of morpho‐functional relationships in the family of sparidae: A quantitative statistic approach

In many fish species, morphological similarity can be considered as a proxy for similarities in habitat use. The Sparidae family includes species that are recognized for common morphological features such as structure and positioning of the fins and specialized dentition. The aim of this study was to quantitatively describe the relationship of body shape morphology with habitat use, trophic level, and systematics in the majority of known Sparidae species (N = 92). This ecomorphological comparison was performed with a geometric morphometric approach considering as variables the Trophic Index (TROPH), the habitat (i.e., classified as demersal, benthopelagic and reef associated) and the phylogenetic relationship of species at the subfamily level. The analysis by the TROPH variable showed a positive relation with shape because the morphological features of all the species are strongly correlated with their trophic behavior (e.g., herbivore species have a smaller mouth gap that make them able to feed upon sessile resources). The morphological analysis according to the Habitat variable was used to classify species according to a feeding‐habitat niche in terms of portion of the water column and seabed space where species mostly perform their behavioral activities. We described three kinds of morphological designs in relation to a benthopelagic, demersal and reef‐associated habit. The six subfamily groups were morphologically well distinguishable and the cladogram relative to Mahalanobis' morphological distances was compared with those proposed by other authors. We also quantified the phylogenetic relationship among the different subfamilies based on the analysis of shape in relation to trophic ecology, confirming the observations of the authors. J. Morphol., 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The application of the Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives (ZERI) concept in an integrated industry-polyculture-farm system in Namibia: The case of Tunweni Sorghum Brewery

One major area dealt with by the concept of Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives (ZERI) is the utilisation of huge volumes of nutrient-rich waters from household toilets, kitchen sinks and municipal and organo-industries for integrated purposes. The arrangements at the Tunweni Sorghum Brewery, Tsumeb, Namibia are such that wastewater is utilised in the polyculture of locally available riverine fish species in large (3 000m²; 120m long × 25m wide), deep (3m) earthen ponds. Before reaching the fishponds the wastewater passes through a series of bio-system processes such as mushroom and earthworm beds, a pig sty, anaerobic and aerobic digesters and algae ponds. A pH of about 8.0 is desirable for maximum fish production in the large (9 000m³) fishponds. The old Chinese technique is followed whereby wastewater is utilised for growing fish without adding any feed supplement; various plankton and invertebrates produced naturally serve as feeds for various kinds of fish feeding at different trophic levels. A variety of locally-available riverine fish species, of different trophic levels, are useful for sustainable stocking in the ponds where no feed-supplement is necessary. Various plankton and invertebrates are produced naturally as feeds for the various kinds of fish feeding at different trophic levels, obviating the purchase of costly artificial feeds which can make fish culture uneconomical. Fish wastes are naturally mineralised into nutrients in the ponds and the nutrient-rich water supports phytoplankton, zooplankton and invertebrates, all of which comprise a varied food chain supporting the fish growth.     

On the respiratory quotient (RQ) of termites (Insecta: Isoptera)

The respiratory quotient (RQ) at 28 degrees C was determined by Warburg manometry in 23 species of termites from the Mbalmayo Forest Reserve (Cameroon) and three sub-tropical species cultured under laboratory conditions in the U.K. or freshly collected in Australia. The data are tabulated with other recently reported RQs (determined by manometry or GC) and with measured CH(4) emission rates to provide a survey of 29 species covering both lower and higher termites in all major trophic (functional) categories. In all species, except the wood-feeding Coptotermes acinaciformis and the soil-feeding Cubitermes fungifaber, the observed mean values (with manometry corrected for known fluxes of H(2) and CH(4)) were at or well above 1.00. Soil-feeding forms (except C. fungifaber) generally showed a high apparent RQ (not corrected for H(2)), with nine species (out of 13) above 1.20 and six species above 1.30. Well-replicated laboratory experiments with Reticulitermes lucifugus showed that there was a tendency for RQ to fall with time over a 4-h incubation, although remaining greater than 1.00.The observed RQs are consistent with carbohydrate being the principal substrate supporting respiration in all trophic and taxonomic categories, with little or no contribution from the degradation of lignin or other polyaromatic materials. However, in many species (especially soil-feeders), the observed RQ is greater than that expected from known fluxes of O(2), CO(2) and CH(4) on the assumption that carbohydrate is the respiratory substrate. This presupposes that there is a large hydrogen sink (additional to CH(4) production), possibly the emission of H(2) gas, and/or the existence of unresolved digestive mechanisms or electron routings. Uncertainties in the use of manometry with termites are discussed.     

Palaeoenvironmental changes across the Permian/Triassic boundary at Shangsi (N. Sichuan,China)

The section at Shangsi in Sichuan contains one of the most detailed and best records of events during the Permian/Triassic (P/T) mass extinction. Continuous deep water deposition is only punctuated by a minor shallowing in the late Changxingian. The micritic mudstones and wackestones of the Changxingian Dalong Formation contain abundant ammonoids and radiolaria and diverse and common benthic taxa (mostly bivalves and brachiopods) in a thoroughly bioturbated sediment. The presence of a well developed tiered burrow profile is just one line of evidence for a fully oxygenated water column in the late Permian. The faunal crisis occurs in the top few decimetres of the Dalong Formation and severely affected all groups (benthos, nekton and plankton). The extinction coincides precisely with the development of anaerobic and dysaerobic facies. The basal Triassic sediments of the Feixanguan Formation are thinnly‐bedded or laminated silicic marls and contain pyrite and several levels of elevated organic carbon concentrations. The fauna is restricted to rare ammonoids and a few bedding planes covered in Claraia. The presence of abundant coccoid cyanobacteria in these sediments may indicate an unusually simple trophic web in the early Triassic seas as these picoautotrophs are normally grazed by zooplankton, they are rarely directly incorporated into seafloor sediment. The recent discovery of black shales in P/T pelagic sediments of Japan indicates that the anoxic event also affected deep ocean waters and further strengthens the link between extinction and anoxia.     

长江口及邻近海域高营养层次生物群落功能群及其变化

通过对2006年6、8和10月在长江口及邻近海域3次调查采集样品的分析,对该水域的高营养层次生物群落的功能群组成及其变化进行了研究.结果表明：长江口及邻近海域高营养层次生物群落包括鱼食性、蟹食性、虾食性、底栖动物食性、浮游生物食性和广食性6个功能群.由于受海洋环境变化以及鱼类洄游活动的影响,各月份长江口及邻近海域高营养层次生物群落的组成及营养级都有较大的变化.6月高营养层次以鱼类、毛虾类和蟹类为主,以浮游生物食性功能群为主要功能群,营养级最低,为3.06;8月高营养层次以鱼类为主,虾食性功能群为主要功能群,营养级达到最高,为3.78;10月高营养层次虽仍以鱼类为主,虾蟹类比例增大,功能群以浮游动物食性和底栖动物食性功能群为主,营养级为3.58.     

Kleptoplast distribution,photosynthetic efficiency and sequestration mechanisms in intertidal benthic foraminifera

Foraminifera are ubiquitously distributed in marine habitats, playing a major role in marine sediment carbon sequestration and the nitrogen cycle. They exhibit a wide diversity of feeding and behavioural strategies (heterotrophy, autotrophy and mixotrophy), including species with the ability of sequestering intact functional chloroplasts from their microalgal food source (kleptoplastidy), resulting in a mixotrophic lifestyle. The mechanisms by which kleptoplasts are integrated and kept functional inside foraminiferal cytosol are poorly known. In our study, we investigated relationships between feeding strategies, kleptoplast spatial distribution and photosynthetic functionality in two shallow-water benthic foraminifera (Haynesina germanica and Elphidium williamsoni), both species feeding on benthic diatoms. We used a combination of observations of foraminiferal feeding behaviour, test morphology, cytological TEM-based observations and HPLC pigment analysis, with non-destructive, single-cell level imaging of kleptoplast spatial distribution and PSII quantum efficiency. The two species showed different feeding strategies, with H. germanica removing diatom content at the foraminifer’s apertural region and E. williamsoni on the dorsal site. All E. williamsoni parameters showed that this species has higher autotrophic capacity albeit both feeding on benthic diatoms. This might represent two different stages in the evolutionary process of establishing a permanent symbiotic relationship, or may reflect different trophic strategies.Subject terms: Microbial ecology, Microbial ecology, Microbiology     

Energy flow to two abundant consumers in a subtropical oyster reef food web

Oyster reefs are among the most threatened coastal habitat types, but still provide critical habitat and food resources for many estuarine species. The structure of oyster reef food webs is an important framework from which to examine the role of these reefs in supporting high densities of associated fishes. We identified major trophic pathways to two abundant consumers, gray snapper (Lutjanus griseus) and crested goby (Lophogobius cyprinoides), from a subtropical oyster reef using stomach content and stable isotope analysis. The diet of gray snapper was dominated by crabs, with shrimp and fishes also important. Juvenile gray snapper fed almost entirely on oyster reef-associated prey items, while subadults fed on both oyster reef- and mangrove-associated prey. Based on trophic guilds of the gray snapper prey, as well as relative δ¹³C values, microphytobenthos is the most likely basal resource pool supporting gray snapper production on oyster reefs. Crested goby had omnivorous diets dominated by bivalves, small crabs, detritus, and algae, and thus were able to take advantage of prey relying on production from sestonic, as well as microphytobenthos, source pools. In this way, crested goby represent a critical link of sestonic production to higher trophic levels. These results highlight major trophic pathways supporting secondary production in oyster reef habitat, thereby elucidating the feeding relationships that render oyster reef critical habitat for many ecologically and economically important fish species.     

Trophic niche segregation among herbivorous serrasalmids from rapids of the lower Xingu River,Brazilian Amazon

In the Amazon Basin, several species of herbivorous serrasalmid fishes inhabit rapids, but it is unknown if they partition food resources during the annual low-water period when fish densities are high within greatly reduced volume of aquatic habitat. We investigated the trophic ecology of juveniles and adults of three species, Myleus setiger, Ossubtus xinguense, and Tometes kranponhah, common in rapids of the Xingu River during the low-water period. Diets, stable isotope ratios of muscle tissue, and functional traits were analyzed for 59 specimens of M. setiger, 175 of O. xinguense and 215 of T. kranponhah. The three species overlapped in dietary and isotopic space, with adult O. xinguense being most divergent. Juvenile and adult T. kranponhah and juvenile O. xinguense, two groups with broad diets, had lowest trophic positions estimated from isotopic data. Adult O. xinguense had the highest trophic position despite having large amounts of Podostemaceae in the diet. High trophic overlap during the low-water period suggests that either food resources are not limiting, or niches are partitioned by other means. Differences in functional traits of the three serrasalmids could be associated with differential efficiencies of swimming and feeding within microhabitats that vary according to water velocity and/or structural complexity.