Species and subspecies specificity in urine and scent marks of saddle-back tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis)

Saguinus fuscicollisproduces scent marks which consist mainly of a mixture of urine and the secretions of circumgenital scent glands. The present study investigates the ability of saddle-back tamarins to discriminate between scent material from conspecifics and corresponding material from other species and to differentiate material from two subspecies of Saguinus fuscicollis.When choices between urine samples from conspecifics and from guinea pigs and choices between urine samples from conspecifics and from common marmosets were offered, the tamarins investigated samples from conspecifics more frequently. Similar responses were obtained when choices between scent marks from saddle-back tamarins and from common marmosets and between scent marks from saddle-back and red-chested moustached tamarins were offered. The tamarins also discriminated between scent marks and between extracts of scent marks from Saguinus f. fuscicollisand Saguinus f. illigeri.In these choice tests, subjects of both subspecies tended preferentially to investigate material from Saguinus f. fuscicollis.The results of these studies show that urine and scent marks contain chemical cues on which recognition of conspecifics can be based. Moreover, the scent marks of closely related subspecies also offer cues which could enable the tamarins to discriminate between them.     

Spatial patterns of scent marking in wild moustached tamarins, Saguinus mystax: no evidence for a territorial function

I investigated whether scent marking has a territorial function in wild moustached tamarins. I examined the spatial distribution of scent marking within the home ranges of four groups of this neotropical primate and tested predictions from Gorman & Mills' (1984, Journal of Zoology,202, 535-547) model for border and 'hinterland' marking. Although home ranges were economically defensible, no evidence was found for increased marking along the territorial boundary or in areas of home range overlap, but there was also no evidence for hinterland marking. Observed distributions of scent marking in exclusively used and overlapping areas of the home range did not deviate from distributions that would be expected if scent marking occurred at random (expectation based both on size of area and on frequency of quadrat occupation), and there was a strong correlation between frequency of quadrat occupation and frequency of scent marking per quadrat. These results indicate that scent marking has no territorial function in moustached tamarins. This is in line with mainly qualitative findings from the majority of other studies on wild marmosets and tamarins. These and other findings on scent marking in moustached tamarins suggest that this behaviour functions mainly in intersexual communication. Copyright 2000 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

Color discrimination by the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus oedipus) and its relation to fruit coloration

Old World monkeys and apes have been reported to differ from New World monkeys in their abilities to discriminate colors across the visible spectrum. Old World monkeys and apes (Macaca, Pan, Pongo) discriminate colors quite accurately, while some New World monkeys studied (Saimiri, Cebus) have shown lower sensitivity to and poorer discrimination of long wavelength light. This study examined the color discrimination ability of another New World primate, the cotton-top tamarin, Saguinus oedipus oedipus (family Callitrichidae). The tamarins were trained to discriminate a set of Munsell color chips, both within the same hue category and from the 2 hue categories on either side of the training hue. Results indicated that the cotton-top tamarin can make accurate discriminations across the visible spectrum. Human subjects were tested under similar conditions in order to compare their color discrimination abilities to those of the tamarins. The tamarins and human subjects had the most difficulty discriminating the same hues. The discrimination abilities of the monkeys were assessed in relation to the coloration of fruits eaten in a natural environment. A list of the species of fruits commonly eaten by various species of New World monkeys was compiled and the coloration of fruits at maturity was noted. It was found that most New World primate species eat fruits whose mature coloration ranges across most of the spectrum.     

Chemical communication of reproductive status in female cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipusoedipus)

Among Callitrichids, scent secretions have been identified as carrying information regarding species, subspecies, gender, social status, individuality, hormonal status, and timing of ovulation. We propose that information regarding familiarity and reproductive status is also communicated. Seven male–female pairs of cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus oedipus) were presented with several drops of distilled water, a scent secretion from the female of that pair, scent secretions from unfamiliar, reproductively mature but noncycling females, and scent secretions from unfamiliar, reproductively cycling females. Behavioral responses from both males and females were recorded over a 10 min period. Differences in behavioral response for both males and females were significant across all four conditions. This indicates that cotton-top tamarins are capable of discriminating a familiar scent from an unfamiliar scent as well as the reproductive status of an unfamiliar female. The communication of this information may play an important role in regulating mate selection, reducing reproductive competition, and stabilizing transfers in and out of groups in the wild. Am. J. Primatol. 45:337–349, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The Equivocal Relationship Between Territoriality and Scent Marking in Wild Saddleback Tamarins (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Saguinus fuscicollis</Emphasis>)

Researchers have often assumed that scent marking serves a territorial function in callitrichines, although some controversy exists. To fulfill such a function, scent marks should 1) prevent intrusions, 2) ensure access to feeding resources, 3) enable avoidance of intergroup encounters, or 4) play an important role in the aggressive encounters between groups. We studied 13 saddleback tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis) belonging to 3 free-ranging groups, which formed mixed-species troops with moustached tamarins (S. mystax) in the Amazonian rain forest of Peru. None of the predictions were confirmed. The tamarins used a border-marking strategy, marking more on the periphery of their territory. However, feeding trees in overlap and encounter areas received more scent marking but were still visited by neighboring groups. Intergroup encounters occurred more often than expected, and scent-marking frequency was not higher during them than when no other group was present. It appears that instead of defending a territory in the classic sense, the tamarins are optimizing signal transmission by depositing their scents where the probability of detection by neighbors is higher. Saddleback tamarins may use shared areas of their home ranges to exchange information with neighboring groups, perhaps regarding reproductive opportunities.     

Do cavity‐nesting primates reduce scent marking before retirement to avoid attracting predators to sleeping sites?

The largest population of endangered golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia, GLTs) decreased from approximately 330 to 220 individuals between 1995 and 2000 due to a dramatic increase in predation at sleeping sites. We used behavioral data from eight social groups in this population to test two hypotheses: First, if GLTs attempt to mitigate the risk of predation at sleeping sites, they should reduce their rates of scent marking just prior to retirement. Second, if the benefits of scent marking prior to entering the sleeping site merit an increase in the rate of marking, then tamarins should increase their rate of pre-retirement scent marking during the breeding season, when such behavior would have its greatest impact on reproductive fitness. We used a generalized linear model (GLM) repeated-measures analysis to compare rates of daytime scent marking with rates of marking just prior to retirement for males and females. In addition, we compared scent marking prior to retiring in the nonbreeding season to marking rates before retirement in the breeding season for males and both sexes considered concurrently. Contrary to our expectations, GLTs significantly increased their rates of scent marking during the 30 min prior to entering their sleeping site-an observation driven by an increase in male (but not female) rates of marking. Rates of marking before entering the sleeping site were greater in the nonbreeding season compared to the breeding season, when both sexes were considered concomitantly and when males were evaluated alone. We conclude that GLTs do not attempt to minimize predation risk by decreasing scent marking in the period before they enter their sleeping site, and that tamarins do not scent mark at this time of day in order to transmit information about reproductive status or to control reproduction of subordinates. We speculate that scent marking in the 30 min prior to entering sleeping sites may serve to reduce predation risk by enabling tamarin groups to return quickly to favored sleeping sites in the evening when crepuscular predators are active.     

隆线溞孤雌溞和两性雌溞的蛋白质差异表达

本实验提取隆线溞孤雌溞和两性雌溞的可溶性蛋白进行双向电泳和质谱鉴定,分析隆线溞在两种生殖状态下蛋白质组的差异变化。聚丙烯酰胺凝胶SDS-PAGE结果表明:隆线溞在两种生殖状态下存在明显的蛋白质表达差异,孤雌溞的蛋白条带在分子量约50.6kD、36.2kD、32.1kD和25.7kD处表达量较两性雌溞明显;两性雌的蛋白条带在分子量约87.8kD、67.2kD、53.6kD和35.5kD处表达量较孤雌溞明显,其中35.5kD的蛋白条带为两性雌所特有。同时取两个样品的可溶性蛋白进行双向电泳,每个样品重复四次。双向电泳图谱经银染后利用软件分析可知,隆线孤雌平均可检测到约750个蛋白质点,两性雌溞平均可检测到约720个蛋白质点。同时利用软件对凝胶上的蛋白质点进行半定量分析,发现隆线溞从孤雌生殖转化为两性生殖后有18个蛋白质点呈现显著变化,其中14个点表达量明显下降,4个点表达量显著升高。实验结果具有较好的重复性。取4个表达量显著上升的蛋白质点进行质谱分析,得到两个蛋白质点(16号和17号)的测定结果。其中16号点为一类酸性脱氢酶(2I234),它在动物生长发育的各个阶段大量表达,这类蛋白质在隆线溞生殖转化过程中表达量变化尤为显著。本研究结果表明:隆线溞在孤雌生殖和两性生殖状态下存在明显的蛋白质表达差异。     

Social behavior of the emperor tamarin in captivity: Components of agonistic display and the agonistic network

Agonistic behavior was studied longitudinally for 16 months in an intact family groups of captive emperor tamarins (Saguinus imperator subgrisescens) using methods from quantitative ethology and social network analysis. A motivational analysis of the components of agonistic display revealed the relative strength of each component along a continuum from strongly dominant to strongly subordinate. Tabulations of exchanges of strongly dominant and strongly subordinate components in interactions among the tamarins revealed an agonistic network (“dominance hierarchy”) that approached, but did not quite reach, the ideal state of a transitive order (“linear dominance hierarchy”). The frequency with which individual tamarins long called and scent marked was not closely correlated with their position (“dominance rank”) in the agonistic network. Instead, individuals undergoing change in status long called and scent marked frequently, irrespective of their rank.     

The ownership signature in mouse scent marks is involatile

Male house mice advertise their territory ownership through urinary scent marks and use individual-specific patterns of major urinary proteins (MUPs) to discriminate between their own scent and that of other males. It is not clear whether recognition occurs through discrimination of the non-volatile proteins or protein-ligand complexes (direct model), or by the detection of volatile ligands that are released from MUPs (indirect model). To examine the mechanism underlying individual scent mark signatures, we compared investigatory and countermarking responses of male laboratory mice presented with male scent marks from a strain with a different MUP pattern, when they could contact the scent or when contact was prevented by a porous nitrocellulose sheet to which proteins bind. Mice investigated scent marks from other males whether these were covered or not, and biochemical analysis confirmed that the porous cover did not prevent the release of volatiles from scent marks. Having gained information through investigation, mice increased their own scent marking only if they had direct contact with another male's urine, failing to do this when contact was prevented. Individual signatures in scent marks thus appear to be carried by non-volatile proteins or by non-volatile protein-ligand complexes, rather than by volatiles emanating from the scent.     

Tamarine – die etwas anderen Primaten

Tamarins – the slightly different primates Unusual for primates, callitrichids are characterized in their social organization by a male‐biased sex ratio and in their social breeding system by a high degree of flexibility with prevailing polyandry, particularly in tamarins. Social polyandry contrasts with a general monopolization of paternities by a single male, i.e. genetic monogamy. Unique amongst primates (and very rare amongst mammals in general) is the cooperative breeding, where apart from fathers other group members, particularly adult males, participate in the transport of infants, generally twins. Finally, female tamarins show much higher rates of scent marking and possess much larger scent glands than males. In combination with the chemical composition of scent marks, this is most plausibly interpreted as a “quality indicator” in the sense of sexual selection theory.     

Individual olfactory signatures in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)

Individual discrimination is likely a prerequisite for most primate social interactions. Olfactory cues are one set of stimuli used by primates to discriminate between individuals. Despite the importance of these olfactory signatures, there is little published research assessing the existence or function of individually unique odors among primates. This review systematically assesses behavioral and biochemical aspects of individual odors in a New World primate, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). There are three objectives to this review: First, behavioral evidence for odors unique to the individual is evaluated in the context of results demonstrating that marmosets are able to discriminate between the scents from a familiar and a novel individual conspecific in behavioral bioassays under a variety of conditions. Second, biochemical evidence for individual scent signatures is debated with reference to studies examining qualitative and quantitative differences between the chemical compositions of scent-mark pools from adult females. A combined gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS) analysis demonstrated that each female had a unique ratio of highly volatile chemicals in the scent mark that could affect individual discrimination. Finally, the possible adaptive significance of individual odors in marmosets is debated. Individual odors may play a key role in regulating both female intrasexual competition and intersexual communication by providing a basis for the assessment of individual quality.     

Isolation and Characterization of Photosystem Ⅱ of Porphyra yezoensis Ueda

The thylakoid membranes were isolated and purified from gametophyte of Porphyra yezoensis Ueda (P. yezoensis) by sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation. After P. yezoensis gametophyte thylakoid membranes were solubilized with SDS, the photosystem Ⅱ (PSⅡ) particles were isolated and purified. The activity of PSⅡ     

Sexual communication between breeding male and female cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus), and its relationship to infant care

Male cotton-top tamarins have been shown to be responsive to female scent cues of ovulation, and are known to actively participate in infant care during the time when their mates are fertile. We measured urinary androgen levels and glucocorticoids in seven father tamarins for the first month following the birth of infants to determine 1) whether male tamarins showed an androgen response to their mate's postpartum ovulation, 2) when androgens rise relative to ovulation, 3) whether there is a glucocorticoid response, and 4) whether males alter their parenting behavior during their mate's receptive period. All of the males showed a significant increase in urinary androgens prior to the female's postpartum LH peak, which indicated ovulation. The hormonal increase, which included estradiol, occurred 3-7 days prior to the female's LH peak at a time that coincided with the female's follicular period. Corticosterone levels also peaked during that time, but did not correlate with androgen changes. Fathers did not alter their daily infant-carrying patterns relative to the androgen increase or at the time of the mate's LH peak. We conclude that male cotton-top tamarins experience an increase in androgens that coincides with their mate's postpartum ovulation, which ensures optimal fertility. However, this sexual communication does not alter father-infant interactions, which already occur at a high rate in this species.     

Intracellular Distribution of Heat Shock Proteins in Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan)

The proteins synthesized In response to higher temperature In pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) plants have been studied with respect to their Intracellular localization using root tissue. The heat shock proteins (hsps) of 18, 20, 22 and 24 kD were found to be associated with mitochondrial and membrane fractions, while the 60, 70 and 81 kD hsps were found In the soluble fraction. No evidence for the presence of hsps among the proteins synthesized in organello by isolated mitochondria could be obtained. Low molecular weight hsps (18, 20, 22 and 24 kD) were found associated with mitochondria Isolated from the heat shocked tissue suggesting that these hsps may have been transported post-translationally into mitochondria.     

Sex Differences in Olfactory Communication in Saguinus labiatus

We assessed behaviors involved with depositing and receiving scent in three captive heterosexual pairs of red-bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus). The frequencies of scent deposition and scent investigatory behaviors differed between the sexes. Females scent marked exclusively by the anogenital gland. Males deposited 95.8% of scent marks via the anogenital gland and 4.2% via the sternal gland. Females scent marked at a significantly higher rate than that of males (0.9 ± 0.1 versus 0.3 ± 0.1 per 20 min, respectively). Males investigated the scent of their opposite-sex partners whereas females investigated no male scent. Mean ± SEM latency for males to investigate female scent was 208.7 ± 65.0 sec. Around 9% of all scent marks were overmarked within 8 min and there was a nonsignificant trend for males to overmark the scent of their female partners than vice versa. We discuss the sex differences in olfactory communication in red-bellied tamarins in terms of sexual selection theory.     

The Floral Specific Proteins of Cucumber

Soluble proteins extracted from various organs of cucumber (Cucurnis sativus L. ) were analyzed using the technique of SDS one dimensional gel electrophoresis. The majority of the proteins were expressed in more than one organ, while those specific to only one organ were comparatively rare. Only two of all the proteins analized appeared to be truely organspecific. A 40.0 kD protein and a 30.8 kD protein were observed only in extracts of reproductive organs stamen and ovary. Some proteins were specific only to certain reproductive organ. They are 35.0 kD and 34.0 kD in sepal, 18. 8 kD, 28.5 kD, 31.0 kD, 37.0 kD and 39.0 kD in stamen, 45.0 kD in style with stigma and 32.5 kD in ovary. IEF-SDS two-dimensional'electrophoresis showed that many of the one-dimensional gel bands represented several proteins dots in the 2-D and that some of them were unique to an organ-type of the flower. Protein analysis of the various organs showed that stamens contained the greatest amount and petals the least amount of protein.     

Genes for biosynthesis and assembly of CS3 pili of CFA/II enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli: novel regulation of pilus production by bypassing an amber codon

The complete nucleotide sequence of the 4746bp HindIII fragment encoding the genes for the biosynthesis and assembly of CS3 pili has been determined. By site-directed mutagenesis in conjunction with analysis of the plasmid-encoded proteins in minicells, the actual reading frames for the various products have been determined. This demonstrated that the genes for four of the proteins (63 kD, 48 kD, 33 kD, and 20 kD in size) are encoded entirely within the same open reading frame as a fifth protein (104 kD). However, for synthesis of this latter protein, suppression or readthrough of an internal amber codon is required. Termination at this codon is also necessary for synthesis of the former proteins. Two further proteins are also encoded within the HindIII fragment: a 27 kD precursor of a periplasmic protein and the 17.5kD precursor of the major CS3 fimbrial subunit.     

The unusually strong stabilizing effects of glycine betaine on the structure and function of the oxygen-evolving Photosystem II complex

Natural osmoregulatory substances (osmolytes) allow a wide variety of organisms to adjust to environments with high salt and/or low water content. In addition to their role in osmoregulation, some osmolytes protect proteins from denaturation and deactivation by, for example, elevated temperature and chaotropic compounds. A ubiquitous protein-stabilizing osmolyte is glycine betaine (N-trimethyl glycine). Its presence has been reported in bacteria, in particular cyanobacteria, in animals and in plants from higher plants to algae. In the present review we describe the experimental evidence related to the ability of glycine betaine to enhance and stabilize the oxygen-evolving activity of the Photosystem II protein complexes of higher plants and cyanobacteria. The osmolyte protects the Photosystem II complex against dissociation of the regulatory extrinsic proteins (the 18 kD, 23 kD and 33 kD proteins of higher plants and the 9 kD protein of cyanobacteria) from the intrinsic components of the Photosystem II complex, and it also stabilizes the coordination of the Mn cluster to the protein cleft. By contrast, glycine betaine has no stabilizing effect on partial photosynthetic processes that do not involve the oxygen-evolving site of the Photosystem II complex. It is suggested that glycine betaine might act, in part, as a solute that is excluded from charged surface domains of proteins and also as a contact solute at hydrophobic surface domains.     

Protein Electrophoretic Analysis of Amyloplast and Cytoplasm Ribosomes from Lotus Cotyledon

Amyloplasts and cytoplasmic ribosomes in cotyledon cells of lotus (Nelvmbo nucifeva Gaertn. ) have been observed on the basis of morphology. Isolation of these ribosomes by centrifugation through 30% to 55% (W/V) sucrose density gradient resulted in three bands of amyloplasts ribosomes and four bands of cytoplasmic ribosomes. The authors used these ribosomes bands for SDS-PAGE electrophoresis to analyse ribosomes of proteins. The patterns of SDS-PAGE between cytoplasmic ribosomes of proteins and amyloplasts ribosomes of proteins were different. The amyloplasts ribosomes of proteins showed 26 kD and 23 kD bands, and the cytoplasmic ribosomes of proteins showed 65 kD band. The analysis of electrophoretic patterns of the cytoplasmic ribosomes of proteins showed that there was a newly synthesized ribosomes protein with 19 kD molecular weight in 18 to 20 days after fertilization.     

Monoclonal antibodies to epitopes on different regions of the 200 00 dalton neurofilament protein : Probes for the geometry of the filament

Neurofilaments in mammalian nervous tissues have three subunit proteins. These subunit proteins have apparent molecular masses of 200 (NF200), 150 (NF150) and 68 (NF68) kD. Biochemical assembly studies have indicated that the NF68 protein forms the core of the filament and that the other two proteins are associated proteins. Electron microscopy immunolocalization studies have been performed previously on isolated filaments and on filaments from neurons in culture, and have confirmed the localization of NF68 as a core filament protein and NF200 as a peripheral protein. We have raised two monoclonal antibodies to the NF200 components. Using immunogold labelled protein A, we have been able to localize these antibodies to tissue sections of adult cerebellum at the EM level. With this method, we have found that one of the monoclonal antibodies (NF2) shows a linear arrangement of gold particles directly on the filament, whereas the second monoclonal antibody (NF111) reacts with the filaments to give a periodic arrangement of gold particles. By immunoblotting against chymotryptic fragments of the NF200 protein, we have found that the mAB-NF111 reacts solely with a 160 kD piece, whereas the other monoclonal antibody reacts with both the 160 kD piece and the 40 kD piece. The latter piece was shown to be associated to the filament by binding studies with iodinated NF68. Thus the EM localization studies and the biochemical studies indicate that the two monoclonal antibodies react with different parts of the NF200 molecule, one binding to a part of the molecule which is located closer to the filament, and one to a more peripheral part of the molecule.