Mycotoxin-producing potential of fungi associated with qat (Catha edulis) leaves in yemen

Forty-four fungal species belonging to 20 genera were isolated from 30 samples of qat leaves. The most frequent genera wereAspergillus, Alternaria, Penicillium, andCladosporium followed byFusarium, Drechslera, Chœtomium, andMucor. The most prevalent species in above genera wereAspergillus niger, A. flavus, A fumigatus, Alternaria alternata, Penicillium chrysogenum, P. citrinum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, andFusarium verticillioides. From these fungi, 17 species (39%) related to 7 genera (35%) proved to be true endophytes. Eleven out of 75 isolates were mycotoxigenic.A. alternata produced alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether whereasA. flavus produced aflatoxins B₁ and B₂. Ochratoxin A, sterigmatocystin, citrinin and T-2 toxin were produced byA. ochraceus, A. versicolor, P. citrinum andF. oxysporum, respectively. The presence of such toxigenic fungi associated with qat leaves is considered to be a threat to public health.     

Molecular characterization of fungal endophytes from Calotropis procera plants in Taif region (Saudi Arabia) and their antifungal activities

Fungal endophytes were isolated from the leaves of Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae) collected from Taif region (Saudi Arabia). Thirty-three different taxa were recovered. The overall foliar colonization rate was 35.1%. A total of 161 isolates were obtained and identified into 33 distinct operational taxonomic units based on the sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer regions of the rRNA gene. The most prevalent fungi were Aspergillus flavus, Chaetomium globosum, Cochliobolus lunatus, Fusarium dimerum, F. oxysporum, and Penicillium chrysogenum. A total of 161 isolates were tested for antifungal activities against four plant pathogenic fungi (Alternaria alternata, Fusarium oxysporum, Botrytis cinerea, and Pythium ultimum), of which 33 isolates showed antifungal activity against at least one plant pathogenic fungi. Four isolates of Chaetomium globosum and three isolates of Myrothecium verrucaria showed the strongest antifungal activity. This study reported the occurrence of a much wider spectrum of fungi, when compared with previous work. Also, it confirmed the variation of different isolates from the same species in terms of antifungal activity.     

A comparative study of endophytic and epiphytic fungal association with leaf of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptus citriodora</Emphasis> Hook., and their antimicrobial activity

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook, is frequently cultivated tree in India for its wood and medicinal usages. The endophytic and epiphytic fungi were estimated from healthy leaves of E. citriodora growing in the premise of Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India. A total of 33 fungal species were isolated from leaf segments. Of 33 taxa, 20 were recorded as endophytes, while 22 as epiphytes. Nine, out of 33 species were found to be common in leaf tissues and surfaces (Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus fumigatus, A. terreus, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Drechslera rostrata, Humicola grisea, Nigrospora oryzae, Penicillium cristata, and Pestalotia sp.). Out of 478 fungal isolates, 279 were epiphytic while only 199 were endophytic. Most isolates were anamorphic filamentous fungi which often don’t produce sexual spores. The Sorensen’s index of similarity between endophytes and epiphytes (leaf surface colonizers) was found to be at 0.300. Diversity index of fungal species was higher in endophytes than epiphytes. The frequency of colonization differs greatly in both myco-populations. Cladosporium cladosporioides (26%) was dominant species on leaf surfaces while Botrytis cinerea (10.5%) was dominant in leaf tissues. Out of 16 endophytic isolates evaluated for antagonistic test, 8 (50%) gave the antagonistic activity against variety of fungi representing pathogens to both humans and plants.     

Diverse and bioactive endophytic Aspergilli inhabit Cupressaceae plant family

Aspergilli are filamentous, cosmopolitan and ubiquitous fungi which have significant impact on human, animal and plant welfare worldwide. Due to their extraordinary metabolic diversity, Aspergillus species are used in biotechnology for the production of a vast array of biomolecules. However, little is known about Aspergillus species that are able to adapt an endophytic lifestyle in Cupressaceae plant family and are capable of producing cytotoxic, antifungal and antibacterial metabolites. In this work, we report a possible ecological niche for pathogenic fungi such as Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus flavus. Indeed, our findings indicate that A. fumigatus, A. flavus, Aspergillus niger var. niger and A. niger var. awamori adapt an endophytic lifestyle inside the Cupressaceous plants including Cupressus arizonica, Cupressus sempervirens var. fastigiata, Cupressus semipervirens var. cereiformis, and Thuja orientalis. In addition, we found that extracts of endophytic Aspergilli showed significant growth inhibition and cytotoxicity against the model fungus Pyricularia oryzae and bacteria such as Bacillus sp., Erwinia amylovora and Pseudomonas syringae. These endophytic Aspergilli also showed in vitro antifungal effects on the cypress fungal phytopathogens including Diplodia seriata, Phaeobotryon cupressi and Spencermartinsia viticola. In conclusion, our findings clearly support the endophytic association of Aspergilli with Cupressaceae plants and their possible role in protection of host plants against biotic stresses. Observed bioactivities of such endophytic Aspergilli may represent a significant potential for bioindustry and biocontrol applications.     

Screening the antifungal activity of essential oils against decay fungi from palmyrah leaf handicrafts

Background

The whitish tender leaves of Palmyrah are used for making handicrafts. The problem with these articles is discolouration with time and become more brittle due to fungal attack. This could be prevented by some protective coating. Instead of expensive and harmful chemicals we decided to test natural plant essential oils to control fungal attack. Palmyrah leaf article decay fungi were isolated from two different sites of Jaffna peninsula. In this investigation Antifungal Activity of different plant essential oils from neem (Azadirachta indica), castor (Ricinus communis), citronella (Cymbopogon sp) and camphor (Cinnamomum camphora) obtained from local market have been evaluated against isolated fungi. For screening of Antifungal activity, tests and controls were set to determine minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and Percentage of Growth Inhibition.

Results

Morphologically three different types of Palmyrah leaf decay fungi were isolated and characterized as Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium sp. Neem and castor oils have recorded no significant (0.05 > P) antifungal activity while citronella and camphor oils showed significantly different antifungal activity compared with control. Camphor oil and Citronella oil showed 100, 58.13% of average growth inhibition for A. niger. 96.38, 51.32% for A.flavus and 84.99, 72.76% for Penicillium sp respectively. Camphor oil showed highest percentage of growth inhibition at lowest minimum inhibitory concentration compared with citronella oil. Camphor oil was found to be highly antifungal and most effective against A niger, and A. flavus, compared with Penicillium sp and gave 100 percentage of growth inhibitions at 5, 1 and 15 ml/dl minimum inhibitory concentration respectively.

Conclusion

Significantly higher broad-spectrum of antifungal activity was observed in camphor oil than other tested oils because it showed highest percentage of growth inhibition at lowest inhibitory concentration. Therefore it could be used for the development of new environmental friendly antifungal agent for the preservation of leafy handicrafts. Further formulation, field experiments are necessary to achieve this target.     

Studies on the mycoflora associated with sugarcane factory waste and pollution of River Nile in upper Egypt

Sixty-nine species and four varieties that belong to 28 genera of terrestial fungi were recovered from polluted and non-polluted water and mud samples on glucose and cellulose-Czapek's agar at 28°C. The most common species from the two substrates on the two types of media were Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, A.niger, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Fusarium oxysporum, Mycosphaerella tassiana and Penicillium chrysogenum. Twenty-six species belonging to 14 genera were isolated from polluted (26 species and 14 genera) and non-polluted (17species and 10 genera) mud samples on Sabouraud's dextrose agar at 28°C. The most prevalent species were Acremonium retiulum, Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus flavus, Aphanoascus fulvescens, A. terreus, Aphanoascus sp., Penicillium funiculosum and Stachybotrys chartarum.     

Antimicrobial Activity and Biodiversity of Endophytic Fungi in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dendrobium</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">devonianum</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dendrobium thyrsiflorum</Emphasis> from Vietman

Endophytic fungi are rich in orchids and have great impacts on their host plants. 53 endophytes (30 isolates from Dendrobium devonianum and 23 endophytic fungi from D. thyrsiflorum) were isolated, respectively, from roots and stems of Dendrobium species. All the fungi were identified by way of morphological and/or molecular biological methods. 30 endophytic fungi in D. devonianum were categorized into 11 taxa and 23 fungal endophytes in D. thyrsiflorum were grouped into 11 genera, respectively. Fusarium was the dominant species of the two Dendrobium species in common. Antimicrobial activity of ethanol extract of fermentation broth of these fungi was explored using agar diffusion test. 10 endophytic fungi in D. devonianum and 11 in D. thyrsiflorum exhibited antimicrobial activity against at least one pathogenic bacterium or fungus among 6 pathogenic microbes (Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Aspergillus fumigatus). Out of the fungal endophytes isolated from D. devonianum and D. thyrsiflorum, Phoma displayed strong inhibitory activity (inhibition zones in diameter >20 mm) against pathogens. Epicoccum nigrum from D. thyrsiflorum exhibited antibacterial activity even stronger than ampicillin sodium. Fusarium isolated from the two Dendrobium species was effective against the pathogenic bacterial as well as fungal pathogens. The study reinforced the assumption that endophytic fungi isolated from different Dendrobium species could be of potential antibacterial or antifungal resource.     

药用植物青蒿不同种类的内生菌抑菌活性分析

为了研究青蒿不同种类的内生菌抑制细菌和抑制真菌的活性,该研究采用组织块法和研磨法从青蒿的根、茎、叶中分离内生细菌、放线菌和真菌,以大肠埃希菌(Escherichia coli)(CICC 23657)、枯草芽孢杆菌(Bacillus subtilis)(CICC 10275)、金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)(CICC 10384)、黑曲霉(Aspergillus niger)(CICC 2487)、酿酒酵母(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)(CICC 33032)为指示菌,采用琼脂块法和双层平板法检测内生菌的抑菌活性。结果表明:(1)从青蒿植株中共分离到76株内生菌,其中内生细菌19株、内生放线菌34株、内生真菌23株。从分离部位来看,56株来自于茎段、17株来自于根段、3株来自叶片。(2)内生细菌中抑菌活性菌株占总菌株的比例最高,为95%,内生放线菌和内生真菌中抑菌活性菌株的比例分别为41%、35%。(3)内生细菌的抗菌谱较广;虽然内生放线菌的抗菌谱较窄,但其中高抗菌株较多,尤其对酿酒酵母的抑菌效果好。综上结果显示,药用植物青蒿中存在着丰富的有抑菌活性的内生菌,且不同种类的内生菌抑菌活性不同。     

The Endophytic Mycoflora of Bark,Leaf, and Stem Tissues of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Azadirachta indica</Emphasis> A. Juss (Neem) from Varanasi (India)

A systematic study was made of the endophytes of Azadirachta indica A. Juss (the neem tree) growing in several of its natural habitats in India. A total of 233 isolates of endophytic fungi representing 18 fungal taxa were obtained from segments of bark, stem, and leaves of this tree. Hyphomycetes (62.2%) were the most prevalent followed by the Coelomycetes (27.4%) and Mycelia Sterilia (7.7%). As mathematically determined, the maximum species richness and frequency of colonization of endophytes appeared in leaf segments rather than stem and bark tissues from each location. Endophytic colonization frequency was also greater in leaves (45.5%) than bark (31.5%). The leaf samples from all locations were nearly constant in their endophytic composition, whereas bark samples showed maximum diversity at different locations. Inter-site comparisons for endophytic diversity, however, were not significantly different with Loc1 and Loc2 having a maximum of 66.67% J _c. The smallest similarity was between Loc2 and Loc3 of 54.17% J _c. The dominant endophytic fungi isolated were Phomopsis oblonga, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Pestalotiopsis sp., Trichoderma sp, and Aspergillus sp. Genera such as Periconia, Stenella, and Drechslera are reported here for the first time as endophytes from this host plant. This report illustrates the value of sampling different tissues of a given plant in several locations to obtain the greatest species diversity of endophytes. The rich and sizeable collection of endophytic fungi from this specific plant may represent a unique source of one or more of the interesting and useful bioactive compounds normally associated with A. indica such as the azadirachtins and related tetranortriterpenoids.     

Mycobiota and molecular detection of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus aflatoxin contamination of Strawberry (Fragaria ananassa Duch.) fruits

Strawberry fungi were isolated from fresh fruits and juice on the two types of media (Sabouraud dextrose agar, SDA and potato-dextrose agar, PDA) at 28 °C. Nineteen fungal species belong to 12 genera were isolated from fruits and juice on both isolation media. The most common fungal genera and species were Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Mucor racemosus, Neurospora crassa, Penicillium chrysogenum, Rhizopus stolonifer and Trichoderma harzianum. Twenty A. flavus and A. parasitics isolates were assayed for their abilities to produce aflatoxins. The concentration of aflatoxins ranged between 25.8–75.2 and 23.6–71.1 ng/ml at 350 and 365 nm, respectively. Among A. flavus and A. parasiticus strains tested, aflatoxin B contributed 30–60% of total isolates. However, G type contributed 85–90%. The R_f values of B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂ were 0.79, 0.61, 0.44 and 0.32, respectively. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis of extracts revealed the presence of aflatoxins with variable levels.     

湖北烟草内生真菌生物多样性和种群结构分析

【目的】研究传统药用植物烟草(Nicotiana tabacum L.)内生真菌的丰富度,揭示其种群多样性和群落结构,为烟草内生真菌资源的有效利用奠定基础。【方法】采用组织分离法进行烟草内生真菌的分离,通过形态学和分子生物学相结合的方法进行菌株分类鉴定,以香农多样性指数及相对分离频率反映内生真菌物种多样性及分布规律。【结果】从不同组织部位、不同生长时期、不同海拔样地的健康烟草中共分离获得539株内生真菌,根据r DNA-ITS系统发育分析鉴定为31属73种,香农多样性指数为2.78,曲霉属Aspergillus和镰孢属Fusarium为优势菌群,其相对分离频率分别为22.63%和12.99%。其分布规律表现为茎部内生真菌的多样性高于叶部和根部;随着生育期的延长,内生真菌多样性逐步增多;随着海拔高度升高,内生真菌的种类和数量呈现降低的趋势。【结论】烟草内生真菌具有丰富的生物多样性,其分布表现出组织、生长时期、海拔高度专化性。阐明内生真菌在烟草中的分布规律,可以为烟草内生真菌在农业生产领域的开发应用提供科学依据。     

The endophytic fungi from wheat (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Triticum aestivum</Emphasis> L.)

In order to study the species composition of endophytes from wheat healthy plants in Buenos Aires Province (Argentina) and to determine their infection frequencies from leaves, stems, glumes and grains, wheat plants were collected from five cultivars at five growth stages from crop emergence to harvest. A total of 1,750 plant segments (leaves, stems, glumes and grains) were processed from the five wheat cultivars at five growth stages, and 722 isolates of endophytic fungi recovered were identified as 30 fungal genera. Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium herbarum, Epicoccum nigrum, Cryptococcus sp., Rhodotorula rubra, Penicillium sp. and Fusarium graminearum were the fungi that showed the highest colonization frequency (CF%) in all the tissues and organs analysed. The number of taxa isolated was greater in the leaves than those in the other organs analysed.     

Endophytic fungi from the root tubers of medicinal plant Stephania dielsiana and their antimicrobial activity

The adverse effects of chemical synthetic fungicides on agricultural fields and the environment are driving a need to search for safer and less environmentally harmful plant protectants to move toward more sustainable development of agriculture. The endophytic fungal community associated with the medicinal plant Stephania dielsiana, and its potential for providing antimicrobial secondary metabolites were investigated. A total of 26 isolates of endophytic fungi were obtained, and 21 isolates were identified and classified into eight different genera, including Briansuttonomyces, Glomerella, Pleosporales, Diaporthe, Phoma, Penicillium, Periconia and Colletotrichum, and the most frequent endophytic species obtained were Diaporthe phaseolorum, Penicillium sp., Periconia igniari and Colletotrichum sp. The ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extract of the endophytic fungus Diaporthe phaseolorum Stdif6 displayed the most significant antifungal activity against all tested phytopathogens, with EC₅₀ values ranging from 0.0138 to 0.3103 mg/mL. While the EtOAc extract of the endophytic fungus Penicillium sp. Stdif9 exhibited greater potential for antibacterial activity, with the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values against seven bacteria ranging from 1.25 to 6 mg/mL. The remarkable antimicrobial activity of fungal endophytes suggests that fungal endophytes harbored inside the root tubers of S. dielsiana hold great promise as biocontrol agents against a broad spectrum of economically significant pathogens.     

Diversity of fungal endophytes in some medicinal plants of Himachal Pradesh,India

Fungal endophytes were isolated from surface sterilised leaf segments of five medicinal plants collected from Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh, India. A total of 373 fungal strains belonging to 15 fungal genera and 18 species, Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, A. clavatus, A. variecolor, Penicillium chrsogenum, Alternaria alternata, Curvularia lunata, Haplosporium sp., Phoma sp., Nigrospora sp., Colletotrichum sp., Cladosporium sp., Stemphylium sp., Fusarium sp., Geotrichum sp., Phomopsis sp., Trichoderma sp., Rhizopus sp. and some sterile mycelium were isolated from all the plants. The relative frequency, isolation rate and colonisation rates of endophytes were used to study the endophytic diversity. The results showed that the highest colonisation rate (93.05%) was observed in Adhathoda vasica, while it was 91.66% in Ocimum sanctum, 85% in Viola odorata, 82.81% Cannabis sativa and lowest (61.11%) in Withania somnifera. Moreover, reading the richness and diversity of the endophytic fungi, the highest was obtained for O. sanctum, W. somnifera and C. sativa having eight species each, while lowest (6 and 4) was obtained from A. vasica and V. odorata, respectively. As the role of endophytic organisms in defensive mechanisms of plants is now well established, the present study is an important step to find new and interesting endophytes among the medicinal plants.     

Endophytic fungi diversity of aquatic/riparian plants and their antifungal activity <Emphasis Type="Italic">in vitro</Emphasis>

Two hundred and fourteen endophytic fungi were isolated from 500 segments of aquatic/riparian plants Ottelia acuminata, Myriophyllum verticillatum, Equisetum arvense, Cardamine multijuga, and Impatiens chinensis. They were identified to 31 taxa in which Cladosporium, Fusarium, and Geotrichum were the dominant genera. Among all isolates, 169 (79%) were anamorphic fungi, 1 (0.5%) was an teleomorphic ascomycete and 44 (21%) were sterile mycelia. There were significant differences in the colonization frequency of endophytes between the five plant species (X∼2=51.128, P<0.001, Chi-square test). The riparian plants harboured more endophytes than the submerged plants. The antifungal activity of these isolates against Fusarium solani and Phytophthora nicotianae in vitro were tested and 28 (13.1%) isolates showed antifungal activities with more than 30% growth inhibition rate against the two pathogens.     

Assessment of diversity,distribution and antibacterial activity of endophytic fungi isolated from a medicinal plant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Adenocalymma alliaceum</Emphasis> Miers

A study was conducted for isolation, identification and antibacterial potential of fungal endophytes of Adenocalymma alliaceum Miers., (Bignoniaceae), a medicinal shrub vine plant which has long history for its usages in curing various disorders. A total of 149 isolates of endophytic fungi representing 17 fungal taxa were obtained from 270 segments (90 from each stem, leaf and petiole) of this plant. Hyphomycetes (77.85%) were the most prevalent, followed by Ascomycetes (8.05%) and Coelomycetes (4.03%) respectively. A considerable amount of fungal isolates was kept under (10.07%) Mycelia-Sterilia (MS). Leaf harboured maximum colonization of endophytic fungi (72.22%) which was greater than stem (67.78%) and petiole (25.54%). The Jc similarity index was maximum (0.619) between stem vs leaf followed by leaf vs petiole (0.571) and stem vs petiole (0.428). The dominant endophytic fungi were Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, Stenella agalis, Fusarium oxysporum, Curvularia lunata and Fusarium roseum. Among twelve endophytic fungi tested for antibacterial activity, crude extracts of nine endophytic fungi (75%), showed antibacterial potential against one or more clinical human pathogens. Alternaria alternata, Curvularia lunata, Penicillium sp. and Chaetomium globosum exhibited significant antibacterial activity against 4 of 5 tested pathogens, showing broad spectrum activity. This investigation explains the value of sampling from different tissues of a host plant for the greater species diversity, and additionally, the antibacterial screening of some endophytic fungi from this specific medicinal plant may represent a unique source for many of the useful antibacterial compounds.     

Fungal Epiphytes and Endophytes of Coffee Leaves (Coffea arabica)

Plants harbor diverse communities of fungi and other microorganisms. Fungi are known to occur both on plant surfaces (epiphytes) and inside plant tissues (endophytes), but the two communities have rarely been compared. We compared epiphytic and endophytic fungal communities associated with leaves of coffee (Coffea arabica) in Puerto Rico. We asked whether the dominant fungi are the same in both communities, whether endophyte and epiphyte communities are equally diverse, and whether epiphytes and endophytes exhibit similar patterns of spatial heterogeneity among sites. Leaves of naturalized coffee plants were collected from six sites in Puerto Rico. Epiphytic and endophytic fungi were isolated by placing leaf pieces on potato dextrose agar without and with surface sterilization, respectively. A total of 821 colonies were isolated and grouped into 131 morphospecies. The taxonomic affinities of the four most common nonsporulating fungi were determined by sequencing the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region: two grouped with Xylaria and one each with Botryosphaeria and Guignardia. Of the most common genera, Pestalotia and Botryosphaeria were significantly more common as epiphytes; Colletotrichum, Xylaria, and Guignardia were significantly more common as endophytes. Suprisingly, more morphospecies occurred as endophytes than as epiphytes. Differences among sites in number of fungi per plant were significant. Thus epiphytic and endophytic communities differed greatly on a single leaf, despite living only millimeters apart, and both communities differed from site to site. Significant correlations between occurrence of fungal morphospecies suggested that fungi may have positive or negative effects on their neighbors. This is the first quantitative comparison of epiphytic and endophytic fungal floras in any plant, and the first to examine endophytic fungi or epiphytic fungi in leaves of coffee, one of the world’s most valuable crops.     

Diverse non-mycorrhizal fungal endophytes inhabiting an epiphytic,medicinal orchid (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Dendrobium nobile</Emphasis>): estimation and characterization

Although the terrestrial and temperate orchids–fungal biology have been largely explored, knowledge of tropical epiphytic orchids–fungus relationships, especially on the ecological roles imparted by non-mycorrhizal fungal endophytes, is less known. Exploitation of the endophytic fungal mycobiota residing in epiphytic orchid plants may be of great importance to further elucidate the fungal ecology in this special habitat as well as developing new approaches for orchid conversations. The composition of fungal endophytes associated with leaves, stems and roots of an epiphytic orchid (Dendrobium nobile), a famous Chinese traditional medicinal plant, was investigated. Microscopic imaging, culture-dependant method and molecular phylogeny were used to estimate their entity and diversity. Totally, there were 172 isolates, at least 14 fungal genera and 33 different morphospecies recovered from 288 samples. Ascomycetes, coelomycetes and hyphomycetes were three major fungal groups. There were higher overall colonization and isolation rates of endophytic fungi from leaves than from other tissues. Guignardia mangiferae was the dominant fungal species within leaves; while the endophytic Xylariaceae were frequently observed in all plant tissues; Colletotrichum, Phomopsis and Fusarium were also frequently observed. Phylogenetic analysis based on ITS gene revealed the high diversity of Xylariacea fungi and relatively diverse of non-Xylariacea fungi. Some potentially promising beneficial fungi such as Clonostachys rosea and Trichoderma chlorosporum were found in roots. This is the first report concerning above-ground and below-ground endophytic fungi community of an epiphytic medicinal orchid, suggesting the ubiquitous distribution of non-mycorrhizal fungal endophytes in orchid plants together with heterogeneity and tissue specificity of the endophyte assemblage. Possible physiological functions played by these fungal endophytes and their potential applications are also discussed briefly. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Aflatoxin and aflatoxicosis

A wide range of fungi, amounting to fifty-six species belonging to twenty-two genera, have been recovered from animal feeds and foodstuffs.The most frequent fungi were Aspergillus niger, and A. flavus, followed by Mucor racemosus, Alternaria alternata, Rhizopus stolonifer, Penicillium corylophilum and P. notatum. Three genera were found to be of moderate occurrence, namely, Mucor, Rhizopus and Alternaria. The three following genera were of low occurrence: Cladosporium, Fusarium, and Neurospora.The fluorescence method of detecting aflatoxin-producing strains demonstrated that only one isolate of A. flavus possesses this property. Certain species of Penicillium and Aspergillus produced fluorescent substances (metabolites) similar in color to B and G aflatoxin. These substances were subsequently proved not to be aflatoxin by (TLC) chromatography.The animal and public health significance from such toxins was also discussed.     

Fungal endophytes from leaves of Avicennia marina growing in semi-arid environment as a promising source for bioactive compounds

Endophytic fungi are broadly dispersed residing inside plant tissues and have been demonstrated as a treasure for bioactive natural products. Unexplored harsh and heavy metal contaminant habitat of Avicennia marina may have diverse and potential fungal association. Therefore, this work aimed to isolate the culturable fungal endophytes associated with leaves of A. marina and to evaluate their medical potentialities. Seventeen isolates of endophyte fungi were isolated from healthy leaves and their antimicrobial activities were evaluated. Results showed that isolates had activity against micro-organisms in addition to their antioxidant activity produced a variety of phenolic compounds, besides exhibited a lowest cytotoxicity against ATCC-CCL-81 cell line. Consequently, selected endophytic fungal isolates were identified genetically as Chaetomium sp., Chaetomium madrasense, Chaetomium sp., Chaetomium globosum, Aspergillus hiratsukae, Aspergillus ochraceus, Alternaria tenuissima and Curvularia lunata with gene bank accession numbers MT089951, MT089952, MT089953, MT089954, MT089955, MT089956, MT089957 and MT089958 respectively. The most potent fungus extract was analysed using Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry which verified the presence of numerous bioactive compounds. These findings confirmed that new endophytic fungal strains derived from A. marina thrive in harsh ecosystem produce bioactive metabolites which can be recommended as a novel source for drug discovery.