Temperature regulation and metabolism of an Australian bat, Chalinolobus gouldii (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) when euthermic and torpid

The thermal and metabolic physiology of Chalinolobus gouldii, an Australian vespertilionid bat, was studied in the laboratory using flow-through respirometry. Chalinolobus gouldii exhibits a clear pattern of euthermic thermoregulation, typical of endotherms with respect to body temperature and rate of oxygen consumption. The basal metabolic rate of euthermic Chalinolobus gouldii is approximately 86% of that predicted for a 17.5-g mammal and falls into the range of mass-specific basal metabolic rates ascribed to vespertilionid bats. However, like most vespertilionid bats, Chalinolobus gouldii displays extreme thermolability. It is able to enter into torpor and spontaneously arouse at ambient temperatures as low as 5 °C. Torpid bats thermoconform at moderate ambient temperature, with body temperature ≈ ambient temperature, and have a low rate of oxygen consumption determined primarily by Q ₁₀ effects. At low ambient temperature (< 10 °C), torpid C. gouldii begin to regulate their body temperature by increased metabolic heat production; they tend to maintain a higher body temperature at low ambient temperature than do many northern hemisphere hibernating bats. Use of torpor leads to significant energy savings. The evaporative water loss of euthermic bats is relatively high, which seems unusual for a bat whose range includes extremely arid areas of Australia, and is reduced during torpor. The thermal conductance of euthermic C. gouldii is less than that predicted for a mammal of its size. The thermal conductance is considerably lower for torpid bats at intermediate body temperature and ambient temperature, but increases to euthermic values for torpid bats when thermoregulating at low ambient temperature. Accepted: 22 August 1996     

Energetics during nursing and early postweaning fasting in hooded seal (Cystophora cristata ) pups from the Gulf of St Lawrence, Canada

In this study we measured growth and milk intake and calculated energy intake and its allocation into metabolism and stored tissue for hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) pups. In addition, we measured mass loss, change in body composition and metabolic rate during the first days of the postweaning fast. The mean body mass of the hooded seal pups (n = 5) at the start of the experiments, when they were new-born, was 24.3 ± 1.3 kg (SD). They gained an average of 5.9 ± 1.1. kg · day⁻¹ of which 19% was water, 76% fat and 5% protein. This corresponds to an average daily energy deposition of 179.8 ± 16.0 MJ. The pups were weaned at an average body mass of 42.5 ± 1.0 kg 3.1 days after the experiment was initiated. During the first days of the postweaning fast the pups lost an average of 1.3 ± 0.5␣kg of body mass daily, of which 56% was water, 16% fat and 28% protein. During the nursing period the average daily water influx for the pups was 124.6 ± 25.8 ml · kg⁻¹. The average CO₂ production during this period was 1.10 ± 0.20 ml · g⁻¹ · h⁻¹, which corresponds to a field metabolic rate of 714 ± 130 kJ ·  kg⁻¹ · day⁻¹, or 5.8 ± 1.1 times the predicted basal metabolic rate according to Kleiber (1975). During the postweaning fast the average daily water influx was reduced to 16.1 ± 6.6 ml · kg⁻¹. The average CO₂ production in␣this period was 0.58 ± 0.17 ml · g⁻¹ · h⁻¹ which corresponds to a field metabolic rate of 375 ± 108 kJ · kg⁻¹ · day⁻¹ or 3.2 ± 0.9 times the predicted basal metabolic rate. Average values for milk composition were 33.5% water, 58.6% fat and 6.2% protein. The pups drank an average of 10.4 ± 1.8␣kg of milk daily, which represents an energy intake of 248.9 ± 39.1 MJ · day⁻¹. The pups were able to store 73.2 ± 7.7% of this energy as body tissue. Accepted: 15 August 1996     

The heat increment of feeding in house wren chicks: magnitude, duration, and substitution for thermostatic costs

The heat increment of feeding (HIF), a transient postprandial increase in metabolic rate, is the energy cost of processing a meal. We measured HIF in house wren chicks (Troglodytes aedon) ranging in mass from 1.6 to 10.3 g. This mass range (age 2–10 days) spanned a transition from blind, naked, ectothermic chicks through alert, endothermic birds with nearly complete feathering. We fed chicks crickets (2.7–10% of chick body mass) and determined HIF from continuous measurements of oxygen consumption rate (O₂) before and after meals. At warm ambient temperatures (T _a) of 33–36 °C, the magnitude of HIF (in ml O₂ or joules) was linearly related to meal mass and was not affected by chick mass. HIF accounted for 6.3% of ingested energy, which is within the range of results for other carnivorous vertebrates. The duration of HIF was inversely related to chick mass; 10-g chicks processed a standard meal approximately twice as fast as 2-g chicks. HIF duration increased with increasing meal mass. The peak O₂ during HIF, expressed as the factorial increase above resting metabolism, was independent of body mass and meal mass. In large, endothermic chicks ( > 8 g), HIF substituted for thermoregulatory heat production at low T _a. Accepted: 11 December 1996     

Ontogeny of deep-body cold sensitivity in Pekin ducklings Anas platyrhynchos

The ontogeny of deep-body cold sensitivity was studied in 1 to 12 days old Pekin ducklings Anas platyrhynchos. Deep-body cold sensitivity was determined by means of thermodes implanted in the abdominal cavity. The thermodes were perfused with cold water for 15-min periods to lower the core temperature. Cooling of the body core elicited increases in metabolic rate and vasoconstrictions in the legs of all the ducklings. From the changes induced in metabolic rate and core temperature, deep-body cold sensitivity values of between −5.17 and −6.36 W · kg⁻¹ · °C⁻¹, were estimated. These values, which are in the range of those reported previously for adult Pekin ducks, did not change with age, and it is concluded that deep-body cold sensitivity is fully developed at hatching. Our next aim was to investigate whether the autonomic responses elicited by exposure of ducklings to cold ambient conditions could be explained by temperature changes within the body core. During cold exposure, the increase in metabolic rate was not accompanied by a concomitant decrease in core temperature. On the contrary, deep-body temperature increased slightly during the initial phase of cold exposure. The ducklings attained a metabolic rate amounting to 85–90% of their peak metabolic rate before the core temperature fell below the regulated level measured at thermoneutrality. Thus, despite the findings that Pekin ducklings have a highly-developed deep-body cold sensitivity, their metabolic cold defence under natural conditions seems to be mediated primarily by peripheral thermoreceptors. Accepted: 7 January 1997     

Phenotypic variation in seasonal adjustments of testis size, body weight, and food intake in deer mice: role of pineal function and ambient temperature

We investigated pineal function as well as reproductive and energetic characteristics in male deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) that differentially respond to short photoperiod with full, partial or no gonadal regression. In mice at both high (23 °C) and low temperature (1 °C), these phenotypic differences in reproductive responses to short days were not reflected by differences in urinary excretion of 6-sulphatoxy-melatonin, the main metabolite of pineal melatonin. Neither duration nor amplitude or phase-angle of nocturnal peaks in 6-sulphatoxymelatonin significantly differed between reproductive phenotypes at either temperature. Differences in testis size were, however, associated with different energy requirements. In gonadally regressed males only, food intake and body weight were significantly (P < 0.01) reduced by up to 29% and 13% respectively. Chronic cold exposure (5 °C) had no effect on the proportion of males undergoing testicular regression under short days, but caused a general elevation in body weights among all mice (P < 0.05). Phenotypic differences in body weight and food intake were maintained in the cold. Together, these results suggest that within-population variation of reproductive responses in male deer mice is based on post-pineal differences in the regulation of gonadal function, and that phenotypic characteristics in reproductive and energetic responses to short days are largely unaffected by ambient temperature. Accepted: 2 October 1995     

Stem respiration of ponderosa pines grown in contrasting climates: implications for global climate change

We examined the effects of climate and allocation patterns on stem respiration in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) growing on identical substrate in the cool, moist Sierra Nevada mountains and the warm, dry, Great Basin Desert. These environments are representative of current climatic conditions and those predicted to accompany a doubling of atmospheric CO₂, respectively, throughout the range of many western north American conifers. A previous study found that trees growing in the desert allocate proportionally more biomass to sapwood and less to leaf area than montane trees. We tested the hypothesis that respiration rates of sapwood are lower in desert trees than in montane trees due to reduced stem maintenance respiration (physiological acclimation) or reduced construction cost of stem tissue (structural acclimation). Maintenance respiration per unit sapwood volume at 15°C did not differ between populations (desert: 6.39 ± 1.14 SE μmol m⁻³ s⁻¹, montane: 6.54 ± 1.13 SE μmol m⁻³ s⁻¹, P = 0.71) and declined with increasing stem diameter (P = 0.001). The temperature coefficient of respiration (Q ₁₀) varied seasonally within both environments (P = 0.05). Construction cost of stem sapwood was the same in both environments (desert: 1.46 ± 0.009 SE g glucose g⁻¹ sapwood, montane: 1.48 ± 0.009 SE glucose g⁻¹ sapwood, P = 0.14). Annual construction respiration calculated from construction cost, percent carbon and relative growth rate was greater in montane populations due to higher growth rates. These data provide no evidence of respiratory acclimation by desert trees. Estimated yearly stem maintenance respiration was greater in large desert trees than in large montane trees because of higher temperatures in the desert and because of increased allocation of biomass to sapwood. By analogy, these data suggest that under predicted increases in temperature and aridity, potential increases in aboveground carbon gain due to enhanced photosynthetic rates may be partially offset by increases in maintenance respiration in large trees growing in CO₂-enriched atmospheres. Received: 4 November 1996 / Accepted: 23 January 1997     

Temperature induced anaerobiosis in two populations of the polychaete worm Arenicola marina (L.)

Temperature dependent changes in the mode of energy metabolism and in acid-base status were studied in the range from −1.7 to 26 °C in two populations of Arenicola marina collected in summer as well as in winter from intertidal flats of the North Sea (boreal) and the White Sea (subpolar). Extreme temperatures led to an accumulation of anaerobic end products, indicating the existence of both a low and a high critical temperature, beyond which anaerobic metabolism becomes involved in energy production. In summer animals from the North Sea the high critical temperature was found at temperatures above 20 °C, and the low critical temperature below 5 °C. Latitudinal or seasonal cold adaptation lead to a more or less parallel shift of both high and low critical temperature values to lower values. Between critical temperatures intracellular pH declined with rising temperature. Slopes varied between −0.012 and −0.022 pH- units/°C. In summer animals from the North Sea, the slope was slightly less than in White Sea animals, but differences appeared independent of the season. However, slopes were no longer linear beyond critical temperatures. A drop in intracellular pH at low temperatures coincided with the accumulation of volatile fatty acids in the body wall tissue of North Sea animals. A failure of active pH_i adjustment is held responsible for the reduced ΔpH_i/ΔT at temperatures above the high critical temperature. Extracellular pH was kept constant over the whole temperature range investigated. The ability of North Sea animals to adapt to temperatures beyond the critical temperature is poor compared to White Sea specimens. The larger range of temperature fluctuations at the White Sea is seen as a reason for the higher adaptational capacity of the subpolar animals. A hypothesis is proposed that among other mechanisms critical temperature values are set by an adjustment of mitochondrial density and thus, aerobic capacity. Accepted: 20 August 1996     

The influence of maximal aerobic power on recovery of skeletal muscle following anaerobic exercise

Phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy (³¹P-MRS) was used to investigate the influence of maximal aerobic power (˙VO _2max) on the recovery of human calf muscle from high-intensity exercise. The (˙VOO_2max) of 21 males was measured during treadmill exercise and subjects were assigned to either a low-aerobic-power (LAP) group (n = 10) or a high-aerobic-power (HAP) group (n = 11). Mean (SE) ˙VO _2max of the groups were 46.6 (1.1) and 64.4 (1.4) ml · kg⁻¹ · min⁻¹, respectively. A calf ergometry work capacity test was used to assign the same relative exercise intensity to each subject for the MRS protocol. At least 48 h later, subjects performed the rest (4 min), exercise (2 min) and recovery (10 min) protocol in a 1.5 T MRS scanner. The relative concentration of phosphocreatine (PCr) was measured throughout the protocol and intracellular pH (pH_i) was determined from the chemical shift between inorganic phospate (P_i) and PCr. End-exercise PCr levels were 27 (3.4) and 25 (3.5)% of resting levels for LAP and HAP respectively. Mean resting pH_i was 7.07 for both groups, and following exercise it fell to 6.45 (0.04) for HAP and 6.38 (0.04) for LAP. Analysis of data using non-linear regression models showed no differences in the rate of either PCr or pH_i recovery. The results suggest that ˙VO_2max is a poor predictor of metabolic recovery rate from high-intensity exercise. Differences in recovery rate observed between individuals with similar ˙VO_2max imply that other factors influence recovery. Accepted: 17 December 1996     

Cold tolerance and dehydration in Enchytraeidae from Svalbard

When cooled in contact with moisture, eight species of arctic Enchytraeidae from Svalbard were killed by freezing within minutes or hours at −3 and −5 °C; an exception was Enchytraeus kincaidi which survived for up to 2 days. When the temperature approached 0 °C the enchytraeids apparently tried to escape from the moist soil. The supercooling capacity of the enchytraeids was relatively low, with mean supercooling points of −5 to −8 °C. In contrast, specimens of several species were extracted from soil cores that had been frozen in their intact state at −15 °C for up to 71 days. Compared to freezing in a moist environment, higher survival rates were obtained during cooling at freezing temperatures in dry soil. Survival was recorded in species kept at −3 °C for up to 35 days, and in some species kept at −6 °C for up to 17 days. Slow warming greatly increased survival rates at −6 °C . The results strongly suggest that arctic enchytraeids avoid freezing by dehydration at subzero temperatures. In agreement with this, weight losses of up to ca. 42% of fresh weight were recorded in Mesenchytraeus spp. and of up to 55% in Enchytraeus kincaidi at water vapour pressures above ice at −3 to −6 °C. All specimens survived dehydration under these conditions. Accepted: 12 December 1997     

Ranging behaviour and time budgets of male wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus in different habitats and seasons

Radiotelemetry was used to measure the range areas, activity patterns and time budgets of 21 adult male wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) between May 1991 and August 1992. The study investigated variation in range, total distance travelled, speed of movement and time budgets between wood mice in the nonbreeding and breeding seasons in a deciduous woodland (n = 8 and 6 respectively). We also examined habitat differences by estimating these same parameters for wood mice inhabiting maritime sand-dunes in the breeding season (n = 7). Insufficient males of an appropriate mass for radiotracking were captured to study the sand-dune mice in the nonbreeding season. Significant variation was found across both season and site. In the breeding season, in woodland, range areas were 5 times larger than during the nonbreeding season. Wood mice on the sand-dunes exploited ranges 28 times greater than their woodland counterparts. The pattern of variation in range area was parallelled by significant differences in total distances and average speeds travelled per night. Diurnal activity, c. 60 min day⁻¹, was frequently recorded, at both sites, but only, in the breeding season, which was attributed to the need to forage in order to maintain energy balance. The comparatively lower availability of food on the sand-dunes was considered the main factor explaining the greater range area, total distance moved, speed travelled and level of activity of animals at this site. Received: 11 September 1995 /Accepted: 12 August 1996     

Seasonal acclimation of prairie deer mice

Prairie deer mice responded to long nights by reducing their metabolic rates, core temperatures, thermal conductances and incremental metabolic responses to cold stimulus, while increasing their capacities for nonshivering thermogenesis. Some winter animals spontaneously entered daily torpor in the mornings and thereby further reduced their metabolic rates and core temperatures. Provision of exogenous melatonin (by subdermal implants) mimiced short photoperiod effects on metabolic rates and core temperatures of wild-caught, laboratory maintained animals. Provision of supplemental dietary tryptophan to laboratory animals conditioned to natural light cycles mimiced metabolic effects of long nights in summer animals, and further reduced metabolic rates of winter mice, but did not affect their core temperature levels. Newly caught, laboratory maintained deer mice responded to natural seasonal clues of shortphotoperiod and increased dietary tryptophan by reducing their resting energy requirements through both lower metabolic and lower core temperature levels. Short photoperiod and seasonal change also promoted gonadal involution, and resulted in more socially tolerant huddling by mice with reduced core temperature. Reduced 24-hour LH excretion rates were also observed in winter animals which were exposed to seasonal light cycles at warm (25°C) room temperatures. We propose that seasonal acclimatization involves pineal effects on sex hormone-influenced social behaviors and on resting metabolism. These effects serve to conserve resting energy expenditure and promote hypothermic insulation by wild prairie deer mice.     

Cold hardiness in Entomobrya nivalis (Collembola, Entomobryidae): annual cycle of polyols and antifreeze proteins, and antifreeze triggering by temperature and photoperiod

In the Swiss Prealps Entomobrya nivalis hibernates in an inactive state, hidden under bark flakes on spruce. For freeze avoidance it relies on thermal hysteresis proteins (THPs) and polyols (mainly ribitol, with small amounts arabitol and threitol). Polyols are present only during the inactive state, THPs additionally protect during the transition phase in spring and autumn, when animals are still active but frosts may occur. Peak values were recorded in February/March for THPs (3.5 °C hysteresis between melting and freezing point) and for polyols (26 μg mg⁻¹ FW; hemolymph osmolality 680 mosmol l⁻¹). E. nivalis is able to control its hemolymph osmolality independently of body water content. Mean osmolality in summer was 350– 440 mosmol l⁻¹, in winter it was elevated to 650 mosmol l⁻¹, due to a synthesis mainly of ribitol. Body water content varied between 1.8 and 3.3 mg H₂O mg⁻¹ DW, depending on humidity conditions. Experiments on triggering of antifreeze synthesis showed the action of temperature and photoperiod as cues, but there was also evidence for an endogenous rhythm. No clear correlation between antifreeze concentration and supercooling ability could be established, suggesting that gut content or other parameters also play an inportant role. Accepted: 18 November 1995     

Second messenger and cAMP-dependent protein kinase responses to dehydration and anoxia stresses in frogs

The effects of whole body dehydration (up to 40% of total body water lost) or anoxia exposure (up to 2 days under N₂ gas) at 5 °C on tissue levels of adenosine 3′–5′ cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) and the percentage of cAMP-dependent protein kinase present as the free catalytic subunit (PKAc), as well as the levels of the protein kinase C (PKC) second messenger, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃), were assessed in two anurans, the freeze-tolerant wood frog, Rana sylvatica, and the freeze-intolerant leopard frog, Rana pipiens. Dehydration of wood frogs resulted in a rapid elevation of liver cAMP and PKAc; cAMP was 3.4-fold greater than control values in animals that had lost 5% of total body water, whereas PKAc was elevated threefold in 20% dehydrated frogs. These results indicate protein kinase A mediation of the liver glycogenolysis and hyperglycemia that is induced by dehydration in this species. Skeletal muscle PKAc content also rose with dehydration but neither cAMP nor PKAc was affected by dehydration in leopard frog tissues. Anoxia exposure had different effects on signal transduction systems. PKAc was elevated after 1 h anoxia in R. sylvatica brain and was sustained over time but the enzyme was unaffected in other organs; by contrast, R. pipiens showed variable responses by PKAc to anoxia in three organs. Both species showed rapid (within 30 min) and large (3 to 7.8-fold) increases in IP₃ in liver of anoxic frogs that decreased slowly with continued anoxia. IP₃ also increased quickly in heart of anoxia-exposed wood frogs. This suggests that PKC may mediate various metabolic adjustments that promote hypoxia/anoxia resistance such as coordinating metabolic rate depression. A progressive rise in liver IP₃ during dehydration in wood frogs (reaching fourfold higher than controls in 40% dehydrated animals) may also mediate similar hypoxia resistance adaptations under this stress since anurans experience progressive hypoxia due to increased blood viscosity when water loss reaches high values. The patterns of second messenger and PKAc changes in wood frog liver during dehydration closely parallel the changes seen in these same parameters during natural freezing suggesting that the freeze tolerance of selected terrestrially hibernating anurans may have evolved out of various anuran mechanisms of dehydration resistance. Accepted: 2 January 1997     

c-fos expression in the putative avian suprachiasmatic nucleus

c-fos induction was investigated as a potential component in the avian photic entrainment pathway and as a possible means of locating the central pacemaker in birds. In both quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) exposure to 1 h of light induced Fos-lir in the visual suprachiasmatic nucleus but not in the medial suprachiasmatic nucleus. However, the degree of c-fos induction in the visual suprachiasmatic nucleus was similar at different circadian times despite the fact that the light pulses caused differential phase shifts in the locomotor rhythm. For golden hamsters the same experiment resulted in significantly different levels of Fos-lir in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, as well as different phase shifts. Starlings and hamsters were also entrained to T-cycles that caused a large daily phase shift (T = 21.5 h in starlings, T = 22.67 hours in hamsters), or no daily phase shift (T = free running period). No difference in the induced levels of Fos-lir in the visual suprachiasmatic nucleus region was observed between the two groups of starlings, but in hamsters there were significantly different levels of Fos-lir in the suprachiasmatic nucleus between the two groups. Accepted: 15 November 1996     

Cold induced vasodilatation and cardiovascular responses in humans during cold water immersion of various upper limb areas

To study the physiological responses induced by immersing in cold water various areas of the upper limb, 20 subjects immersed either the index finger (T1), hand (T2) or forearm and hand (T3) for 30 min in 5°C water followed by a 15-min recovery period. Skin temperature of the index finger, skin blood flow (Q_sk) measured by laser Doppler flowmetry, as well as heart rate (HR) and mean arterial blood pressure (ˉBP_a) were all monitored during the test. Cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC) was calculated as Q_sk / ˉBP_a. Cold induced vasodilatation (CIVD) indices were calculated from index finger skin temperature and CVC time courses. The results showed that no differences in temperature, CVC or cardiovascular changes were observed between T2 and T3. During T1, CIVD appeared earlier compared to T2 and T3 [5.90 (SEM 0.32) min in T1 vs 7.95 (SEM 0.86) min in T2 and 9.26 (SEM 0.78) min in T3, P < 0.01]. The HR was unchanged in T1 whereas it increased significantly at the beginning of T2 and T3 [+13 (SEM 2) beats · min⁻¹ in T2 and +15 (SEM 3) beats · min⁻¹ in T3, P < 0.01] and then decreased at the end of the immersion [−12 (SEM 3) beats · min⁻¹ in T2, and −15 (SEM 3) beats · min⁻¹ in T3, P < 0.01]. Moreover, ˉBP_aincreased at the beginning of T1 but was lower than in T2 and T3 [+9.3 (SEM 2.5) mmHg in T1, P < 0.05;  +20.6 (SEM 2.6) mmHg and 26.5 (SEM 2.8) mmHg in T2 and T3, respectively, P < 0.01]. The rewarming during recovery was faster and higher in T1 compared to T2 and T3. These results showed that general and local physiological responses observed during an upper limb cold water test differed according to the area immersed. Index finger cooling led to earlier and faster CIVD without significant cardiovascular changes, whereas hand or forearm immersion led to a delayed and slower CIVD with a bradycardia at the end of the test. Accepted: 26 November 1996     

Changes in selected aspects of immune function in the leopard frog, Rana pipiens, associated with exposure to cold

The effect of exposure to low temperatures (5 °C) on lymphocyte proliferation, leukocyte populations, and serum complement levels was examined in the northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens. Proliferation of T lymphocytes in response to phytohemagglutinin stimulation was significantly decreased in frogs kept for 2, 3, and 5 months at 5 °C compared to that of animals kept at 22 °C. A significant increase in the average percentage of neutrophils and a decrease in the mean percentage of eosinophils was observed in the blood of frogs held for 5 months in the cold compared to animals held at 22 °C for the same length of time. Mean serum complement activity after 1 month at 5 °C was significantly reduced in comparison to animals held at 22 °C and was not detectable after 5 months in the cold. Recovery of complement levels at room temperature (22 °C) was also examined after cold exposure. Complement levels were significantly higher than controls (at 22 °C) in frogs returned to 22 °C for 7 and 14 days after 5 months in the cold. After frogs were held at 5 °C for 1 month, serum complement levels increased significantly within 2 days after returning to 22 °C and continued to rise 5 and 9 days after warming. Injections with Aeromonas hydrophila following a 5-week exposure to 5 °C failed to cause death or observable symptoms of disease in frogs that were returned to 22 °C. Accepted: 20 November 1996     

Effects of hydration state on hormonal and renal responses during moderate exercise in the heat

The effects of hydromineral hormones and catecholamines on renal concentrating ability at different hydration states were examined in five male volunteers while they performed three trials. Each of these trials comprised a 60-min exercise bout on a treadmill (at 50% of maximal oxygen uptake) in a warm environment (dry bulb temperature, 35°C; relative humidity, 20–30%). In one session, subjects were euhydrated before exercise (C). In the two other sessions, after thermal dehydration (loss of 3% body mass) which markedly reduced plasma volume (PV) and increased plasma osmolality (osm_pl), the subjects exercised either not rehydrated (Dh) or rehydrated (Rh) by drinking 600 ml of mineral water before and 40 min after the onset of exercise. During exercise in the Dh compared to C state, plasma renin, aldosterone, arginine vasopressin (AVP), noradrenaline and adrenaline concentrations were increased (P < 0.05). A reduction in creatinine clearance and urine flow was also observed (P < 0.05) together with a decrease in urine osmolality, osmolar clearance and sodium excretion, while free water clearance increased (P < 0.05). However, compared to Dh, Rh partially restored PV and osm_pl and induced a marked reduction in the time courses of both the plasma AVP and catecholamine responses (P < 0.05). Values for renal water and electrolyte excretion were intermediate between those of Dh and C. Plasma atrial natriuretic peptide presented similar changes whatever the hydration state. These results demonstrate that during moderate exercise in the heat, renal concentrating ability is paradoxically reduced by prior dehydration in spite of high plasma AVP levels, and might be the result of marked activation of the sympatho-adrenal system. Rehydration, by reducing this activation, could partially restore the renal concentrating ability despite the lowered plasma AVP. Accepted: 23 April 1997     

Altitudinal patterns in host suitability for forest insects

Conspecific trees growing at high and low-elevations encounter different growing conditions and may vary in their suitability as hosts for herbivorous insects. Mountain tree populations may be more resistant to herbivory if low temperatures constrain growth more than they constrain photosynthesis, resulting in increased secondary metabolism (temperature hypothesis). Alternatively, mountain trees may be fertilized by atmospheric nitrogen deposition and become more palatable to insects (atmospheric deposition hypothesis). We evaluated these two hypotheses by comparing high- and low-elevation trees with insect bioassays and analyses of foliar nitrogen and condensed tannin. Contrary to the temperature hypothesis, high-elevation foliage had higher leaf nitrogen (six of six tree species) and allowed higher growth rates of Lymantria dispar larvae (five of six tree species). The nitrogen deposition hypothesis was broadly supported by measurements from two mountains showing that high-elevation trees tended to have higher leaf nitrogen, lower leaf tannins, and support higher insect growth performance than conspecific trees from lower elevations. The deposition hypothesis was further supported by fertilization studies showing that simulated atmospheric nitrogen deposition changed the foliar chemistry of valley trees to resemble that of high-elevation trees. Predictions that the altitudinal gradient in foliar chemistry and host suitability should be steepest on mountains receiving more deposition were largely not supported, but interpretations are complicated by lack of replication among mountains. In the northeastern United States, increased host suitability of high-elevation trees seems sufficient to influence the population dynamics and community composition of herbivores. Atmospheric nitrogen deposition offers a promising hypothesis to explain and predict some important spatial patterns in herbivory. Received: 21 September 1997 / Accepted: 12 June 1998     

Effect of masking the parietal eye on the diurnal activity and body temperature of two sympatric species of monitor lizards, Varanus s. salvator and Varanus b. nebulosus

 Five water monitor lizards, Varanus salvator salvator, and four clouded monitor lizards, Varanus bengalensis nebulosus, were caught on Tioman island in Malaysia. A radio-thermistor transmitter was implanted into the buccal cavity of each animal, and they were released into an enclosure measuring 5.5 × 6.5 metres. The lizards were observed for 9 and 8 days, respectively, before and after the parietal eye was covered with aluminium foil. With uncovered parietal eye, both species showed a clear diurnal rhythm, being active only during day time. After covering the parietal eye, the mean locomotor activity of five V. s. salvator decreased from 791 to 107 min · day^–1 but remained unchanged around 850 min · day^–1 for V. b. nebulosus. The mean duration of locomotor activity decreased in V. s. salvator and V. b. nebulosus after the parietal eye was covered, but V. b. nebulosus maintained its locomotor activity by increasing the number of locomotor bouts. The water monitor spent very little time on thermoregulation. Its body temperature ranged between 26.3 and 28.4 °C, which decreased after the parietal eye was covered. The clouded monitor thermoregulated around 28.8–36.0 °C, which remained unchanged after the parietal eye was covered. In both species, there was a strong correlation between body temperature and ambient temperature. Behavioural abnormalities were recorded among V. s. salvator with covered parietal eye. They were often observed to be active by night and often slept outside a burrow. The circadian rhythm of V. b. nebulosus appeared unaffected by shielding of its parietal eye. Captivity combined with shielded parietal eye induced agonistic behaviour in both species. Accepted: 11 September 1996     

The effect of gender on left ventricular function immediately after the wingate test

The effect of gender on left ventricular systolic function and exercise haemodynamics in healthy young subjects was studied during 30-s all-out sudden strenuous dynamic exercise. A group of 22 men [19.3 (SD 1) years] 20 women [19.1 (SD 1) years] volunteered to participate in this study. Two-dimensional direct M-mode and Doppler echocardiograph studies were performed with the subject in the sitting position. The Doppler examination of flow was located with continuous-wave, interrogating ascending aorta measurements. The subjects completed the study without showing any electrocardiograph abnormalities. An interaction effect with stroke volume (P < 0.05) was characterized by a decrease in the men and an increase of stroke volume in the women. Cardiac output rose significantly (P < 0.05) up to 14.5 (SD 6) l · min⁻¹) for the men and 12.1 (SD 4) l · min⁻¹ for the women compared to the rest values [5.8 (SD 0.4) and 4.7 (SD 0.5) l · min⁻¹, respectively]. Flow velocity integral and acceleration time differed significantly between the two groups at rest (P < 0.05). During exercise these differences showed an interaction effect (P < 0.05). These results would indicate that normal men and women respond to sudden strenuous exercise by reducing their left ventricular systolic function, with a significantly greater decrease in women (P < 0.05). The gender differences in the haemodynamic responses during the present study, may, as suggested by others, be attributable to differences in energy metabolism. In addition, changes in Doppler parameters of aortic flow, haemodynamics and blood pressure responses during sudden strenuous exercise differed markedly from those seen before with endurance exercise. Accepted: 8 January 1997