Late Quaternary environmental changes in the Lagoa da Curuça region (eastern Amazonia, Brazil) and evidence of Podocarpus in the Amazon lowland

Late-glacial and Holocene vegetational and climate dynamics and human impact of the eastern Amazon rain forest in the coastal region of eastern Pará State in northern Brazil have been studied in two sedimentary recores from Lagoa da Curu?a. Seven radiocarbon dates provide the chronology for two pollen and charcoal records starting from 11,700 and 9440 uncal B. P. to present. Dense and high diverse terra firme Amazon rain forest in the coastal area shows that there was no savanna during the Late-glacial period. The occurrence of Podocarpus trees in the coastal region during the Late-glacial indicate wet and markedly colder conditions at that time. A possible habitat for Pleistocene populations of Podocarpus trees which are now also evident from several other Amazon regions is discussed. There were no rain forest fires between 11,700 and 10,840 uncal B. P. The increase of charcoal particles in the lake deposits after this period suggest an early Amerindian occupation of the coastal region. Received March 26, 2001 / Accepted August 8, 2001     

Extensive forest grazing and hay-making on mires – vegetation changes in south-central Sweden due to land use since Medieval times

The influence of pre-industrial animal husbandry on the boreal forest in south-central Sweden has been studied by pollen and charcoal analyses of peat profiles from two mires in the vicinity of a shieling site. The impact of farming on the local vegetation development is demonstrated from cal. A. D. 1300–1500 in three ways: forest clearance and cultivation of cereals at the local shieling site; alterations of hydrology and vegetation, such as an increase in Cyperaceae, at mires used for hay production; changes in the composition in the surrounding forest, with decreasing proportions of Betula, Picea and boreo-nemoral broadleaved trees and a consequent increase in Pinus, due to grazing and a change of fire regime. Similar alterations to the forest vegetation are noted at other sites in central and northern Sweden during the last thousand years, when the system of using shielings became more widespread. Hence, early animal husbandry is demonstrated to have had a regional impact on the long-term boreal forest development, replacing the original mixed deciduous-coniferous forest with Pinus dominated forest. Received November 27, 2001 / Accepted June 20, 2002 Correspondence to: Marie Emanuelsson     

The long history of Cannabis and its cultivation by the Romans in central Italy, shown by pollen records from Lago Albano and Lago di Nemi

The cores from the Albano and Nemi lakes, near Rome, were studied within the European Union funded PALICLAS project and provided high resolution records of the Late-glacial and Holocene. Pollen evidence of increasing human influence on vegetation was recorded in the Holocene parts of both diagrams, and the Cannabis (hemp) curve was one of the major signs. In this paper we present unambiguous pollen evidence from the Cannabaceae records for the cultivation of hemp in central Italy by the Romans. The oldest records of Cannabis and Humulus (hop) date from to the Late-glacial. Hop pollen values rise during the mid Holocene, while hemp pollen becomes more abundant from ca. 3000 cal B.P. onwards. The highest earliest hemp peak (21%) is dated to the 1st century A.D. This ‘Cannabis phase’, with the abrupt rise of hemp pollen soon after the rise of cultivated trees (Castanea, Juglans and Olea) is associated with the increase in cereals and ruderal plants. This unambiguous proof of cultivation by Romans around 2000 B.P. occurs as well as a long lasting pre-Roman presence of hemp in the area, which is natural and possibly also anthropogenic. Subsequent clear episodes of cultivation in the medieval period were found. Received February 4, 2002 / Accepted September 13, 2002 Correspondence to: Anna Maria Mercuri, e-mail: mercuri.annamaria@unimo.it     

Stone Age to recent land-use history at Pegrema, northern Lake Onega, Russian Karelia

The village of Pegrema in Karelia may be regarded as a Stone Age innovation centre in the large Lake Onega area. Two pollen and plant macrofossil diagrams are presented which represent the first contribution to the study of human impact in the area using anthropogenic pollen indicators. A continuous but sporadic human presence from the Mesolithic onwards is demonstrated. While there is no archaeological evidence relating to the period 4200–3000 B.P., the pollen data suggest continuous, though rather sparse human presence. The data do not support any natural catastrophes in Pegrema as has been suggested elsewhere. Cerealia pollen is recorded earlier than expected (c. 5000 B.P.=. In the Bronce Age and Iron Age, the settlement of the Zaonezhye peninsula is reflected by a slight increase in herb pollen representation, sporadic Cerealia pollen and several periods of regression in Picea. The long introductory period of agriculture to the area, as well as the similarities and discrepancies between different sources of evidence (palaeoecological, archaeological and historical) are discussed at some length. The start of land clearance for permanent cultivation in the profile Pegrema S was dated to the late 13^th century. The beginning of more intensive field cultivation in the 15^th century is clearly seen in the pollen succession at both localities. The fluctuation in anthropogenic indicators can be related to population density based on historical data. The village of Pegrema was depopulated in 1956 which is reflected in a distinct decline in settlement indicators. Received February 17 / Accepted May 19, 2000     

Tracing and interpreting fine-scale human impact in northern Fennoscandia with the aid of modern pollen analogues

A set of moss samples (n=58) was collected and analysed to obtain modern pollen analogues for both natural and human induced vegetation types in northern Fennoscandia. Vegetation types with settlement, trampling and grazing were selected from the different latitudinal forest zones (birch, pine, and mixed forest). The moss species varied between samples but the size of the sample was kept constant. Numerical analyses such as Redundancy Analysis (RDA) indicate that in northern areas human presence is mainly visible as increased values of Gramineae, Rumex acetosa/acetosella, R. obtusifolius, Solidago-type and Achillea-type pollen. Partial RDA further reveals that settlement is strongly correlated with high values of Rumex acetosa/acetosella, whereas trampled sites are significantly characterised by Gramineae and, to a smaller extent, Cyperaceae pollen. It is therefore possible to distinguish the impact of different types of human activities on vegetation on the basis of the pollen spectra. Later, these data will be used to interpret the presence, nature, and duration of human impact from fossil records from the same area. Received June 6, 2001 / Accepted December 12, 2001     

On the Late Pleistocene and Holocene history of vegetation and human impact in the Ücker valley, north-eastern Germany

A high-resolution Late Pleistocene and Middle to Late Holocene pollen profile of regional significance is presented. The coring site is located in a mire between two lakes. Ober- and Unter-ückersee, in Brandenburg, north-eastern Germany. The study was carried out in an archaeological context. It provides information about the history of vegetation, climate and human impact in the ücker river valley and the surrounding hills, the Uckerm?rker Hügelland. Hence, it is an important contribution for the reconstruction of the past vegetation of this area of Brandenburg. Seven AMS ¹⁴C-dates based on pollen concentrates provide a chronology for the middle Holocene part of the profile. Phases of intensive human activity can be shown from the middle Neolithic times until the Roman Iron Age. Received February 1, 2000 / Accepted January 18, 2001     

Long-term forest fire ecology and dynamics in southern Switzerland

1 Pollen and charcoal analysis at two lakes in southern Switzerland revealed that fire has had a prominent role in changing the woodland composition of this area for more than 7000 years.
2 The sediment of Lago di Origlio for the period between 5100 and 3100  bc cal. was sampled continuously with a time interval of about 10 years. Peaks of charcoal particles were significantly correlated with repeated declines in pollen of Abies , Hedera , Tilia , Ulmus , Fraxinus excelsior t., Fagus and Vitis and with increases in Alnus glutinosa t., shrubs (e.g. Corylus , Salix and Sambucus nigra t.) and several herbaceous species. The final disappearance of the lowland Abies alba stands at around 3150  bc cal. may be an example of a fire-caused local extinction of a fire-intolerant species.
3 Forest fires tended to diminish pollen diversity. The charcoal peaks were preceded by pollen types indicating human activity. Charcoal minima occurred during periods of cold humid climate, when fire susceptibility would be reduced.
4 An increase of forest fires at about 2100  bc cal. severely reduced the remaining fire-sensitive plants: the mixed-oak forest was replaced by a fire-tolerant alder–oak forest. The very strong increase of charcoal influx, and the marked presence of anthropogenic indicators, point to principally anthropogenic causes.
5 We suggest that without anthropogenic disturbances Abies alba would still form lowland forests together with various deciduous broadleaved tree taxa.     

Multi-disciplinary evidence of the Holocene history of a cultivated floodplain area in the wetlands of northern Colombia

An environmental reconstruction of the last 10,000 ¹⁴C years of a frequently flooded wetland ecosystem in the lower Magdalena valley in northern Colombia is presented, on the basis of a multi-disciplinary study of the sediments of the upper 15 m of the core from Boquillas (74°33'E, 9°7'N; 20 m a. s. l.). We used the following studies: pollen, lithology, organic structures, clay mineralogy, soil and sediment geochemistry, and δ¹³C values. The chronology is based on 13 AMS radiocarbon dates; the humic acid fractions were used in the case of seven samples. Pollen from local origin (swamps, open grass-rich vegetation, and gallery forest) show the development of the wetland area. River-transported pollen from a greater distance (dry forest, montane forest, Alnus) show changes in river activity and reflect large-scale changes of climatic conditions in the Momposina basin. From c. 10,010 to 9370 uncal B. P. (zone BQS-Ia) the river system was of high energy, as inferred by the lithological changes. The landscape was dominated by open grass-rich vegetation with gallery forest along the streams. A marked representation of Alnus and montane forest taxa indicate significant water transport and river dynamics. Climatic conditions were dry. From c. 9370-8430 uncal B. P. (zone BQS-Ib) wetlands were isolated from the main river system, and clayey sediments with kaolinite, smectite and illite as the main minerals accumulated in a lower-energy environment. Climatic conditions were dry and changes in the seasonal precipitation favoured the expansion of the gallery forest. From c. 8430 to 8040 uncal B. P. (zone BQS-Ic) low values of river-transported pollen indicate dry climatic conditions and open vegetation became more abundant. The flooding frequency of the Boquillas site diminished. From 8040 to 4900 uncal B. P. (zone BQS-Id) the Boquillas site was dominated by open vegetation with patches of gallery forest along the streams. Supply of river-transported allochthonous pollen (from many sources) was minimal. Clay minerals from the sediments suggest variable temperature and precipitation. From c. 4900 to 1550 uncal B. P. )zone BQS-II) the site was within the reach of the main river system as is the case today. Frequent flooding, coinciding with peaks of river-transported grains of Alnus and high sediment supply, point to high precipitation in the composite catchment area of the Magdalena, Cauca, San Jorge, and Cesár rivers. High values of phosphorous in the upper part of the core point to the presence of a pre-Hispanic civilization, approximately from 2000 uncal B. P. onward. Construction of an extensive drainage system allowed irrigation as well as drainage depending the annual cycle of precipitation. The landscape was significantly modified and allowed an extensive crop production on a system of raised fields. Received May 18, 2001 / Accepted June 15, 2001     

Data on mid-Holocene climatic, vegetation and anthropogenic interactions at Stanshiel Rig, southern Scotland

Pollen, microscopic charcoal and peat humification analyses were applied to radiocarbon-dated peat cores to examine environmental change before and after the mid-Holocene transition from hunter-gatherer (Mesolithic) to agricultural (Neolithic) communities in presently marginal upland pasture at Stanshiel Rig, Annandale, southern Scotland. The Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in northern Britain is characterised by a number kf key environmental changes as well as economic shifts, including temporal patterns of fire and the Ulmus decline. Deliberate vegetation modification by Mesolithic communities is not demonstrable at Stanshiel Rig, and openings in the woodland canopy may have been promoted by grazing by wild animals or have been a consequence of climate change. Changes in fire frequency are also correlated with peat- and pollen-stratigraphic evidence for shifts to a drier climate in the late Mesolithic, probably mediated through pedological and biomass-storage change. A single Ulmus decline occurred between ca. 5650 and 5600 cal B. P., and is related here to climate change. Neolithic-age impacts on the woodland were limited, and no cereal-type pollen were found. The difference between hunter-gatherer and opportunistic farmer/hunter-gatherer at this locally is argued to be insignificant, or not detectable palynologically. Received October 4, 2001 / Accepted July 22, 2002 Correspondence to: S. M. Cayless     

A long‐term record of Quercus decline,logging and fires in a southern Swedish Fagus‐Picea forest

Abstract. We reconstructed forest development and disturbance events (fire and logging) during the last 1000 yr with tree‐ring data, pollen and charcoal analysis from a semi‐natural Fagus sylvatica‐Picea abies forest (ca. 1 km²) in the hemiboreal zone. According to pollen analysis, Quercus robur together with Pinus sylvestris was abundant in the forest until the turn of the 18th/19th centuries when these species disappeared completely (Quercus) or nearly completely (Pinus) and were replaced by Fagus and Picea. The disappearance of Quercus was corroborated by the remarkable discovery of a single Quercus stump that had been cut in the 18th century and had become overgrown and preserved by a very old Picea. In total 11 fires were dated from 1555 to 1748 from fire scars in several Pinus stumps cut 100 ‐ 200 yr ago. Since the last fire in 1748, no Quercus or Pinus have regenerated in the core of the reserve apart from single pines in neighbouring managed forest (80 yr ago). During the period of documented fires Fagus was protected from fires in a refuge made up of large boulders. Picea colonized the region at the time when the fires ceased 250 yr ago. We hypothesize that most of the fires were probably of human origin because of their patchiness and high frequency compared to the natural background levels of lightning ignitions in the region. On a 300‐yr time scale, logging and fire suppression seem to strongly overshadow the effect of climate change on forest composition and dynamics.     

Protracted drought during the late Holocene in the Lacandon rain forest,Mexico

A 3.4 m core was obtained for paleoecological analysis from Naja Lake in the Lacandon region of southeastern Mexico. This is the first study of the Lacandon area aimed at reconstructing late Holocene environmental history. The basal section of the core yielded an AMS date of 2020 ¹⁴C years b.p. The Naja pollen record shows that the lower montane rain forest characterized by Moraceae, Mimosoideae, Leguminosae and Combretaceae/Melastomataceae, coexisted with a pine-oak forest throughout the late Holocene. No Zea mays pollen was found during routine pollen counts, but the presence of both secondary pollen taxa and abundant charcoal particles suggest some degree of regional human impact. A marked increase in Pinus pollen, together with a reduction in lower montane rain forest taxa, is interpreted as evidence for a strong, protracted drought from 1260 to 730 ¹⁴C years b.p.     

Charcoal analysis and the reconstruction of ancient woodland vegetation in the Konya Basin,south-central Anatolia,Turkey: results from the Neolithic site of Çatalhöyük East

The results produced by charcoal analysis are used in conjuction with pollen evidence, geomorphological data and ecological analogues, in order to reconstruct ancient woodland vegetation in the Konya Basin and its surroundings during the Neolithic. Emphasis is placed on the structure, diversity and seasonal habit of different vegetation types, as well as their potential response to natural and/or anthropogenic disturbance. It is argued that such an approach to vegetation reconstruction enables better insights into palaeoenvironments as experienced by human groups in the past, and thus offers fruitful avenues for investigating the relationship of human societies with the natural environment. Received December 2, 1999 / Accepted June 9, 2000     

Impact of forest disturbance on the pollen influx in lake sediments during the last century

The pollen accumulation rates of four lakes in different regions of Estonia were estimated in order to study the relationship between pollen influx and the character and intensity of disturbances in the pollen catchment area. The pollen influx data obtained are in accordance with model calculations on the size of the pollen source areas. The influx of arboreal pollen and that of the dominant taxa (mainly Pinus) in the lakes investigated shows that, in the case of small lakes (area 3-6ha) in a forested landscapes, the bulk of the pollen originates from an area within 100-200m around the lake. The distribution patterns of influx from two lakes situated close to each other but at different distances from forest fires show that past disturbances can be reliably detected when the disturbance occurred in the immediate vicinity of the lake and at least 25% of the local pollen source area was involved. In the case of a large lake (137ha) only fires embracing thousands of hectares can be detected in the pollen diagrams.     

The role of human disturbance in Late Holocene vegetation changes on Kullaberg, southern Sweden

A pollen record from a small peatland located on Kullaberg in northwestern Sk?ne, southern Sweden, revealed that grazing pressure might have been the major disturbance agent controlling the vegetation, at least from ca. 1500 B. C. until the latter part of the nineteenth century. The pollen data also indicate a step-by-step increase in grazing pressure, expressed as a marked increase in non-arboreal pollen representation at ca. 1500 B. C., A. D. 650 and A. D. 1650. The increase at A. D. 650 probably indicates a more regular and intensive use of the area, resulting in a forest structure that was much more open than earlier, together with an expansion of Fagus, which rapidly replaced Quercus as the local forest dominant. At about this time the first patches of heath vegetation originated, but they probably only covered a small part of Kullaberg. Larger areas with an intensively grazed Calluna heath, as shown by eighteenth century maps, probably evolved around ca. A. D. 1650, when much of Kullaberg seems to have been deliberately deforested. Received February 20, 2001 / Accepted September 12, 2001     

Archaeobotanical evidence for early agriculture at Ljubjansko barje (Ljubljana Moor), central Slovenia

Archaeobotanical evidence is presented for early agriculture at southwestern Ljubljansko barje (Ljubljana Moor), Slovenia. Archaeobotanical finds from the Eneolithic site at Hočevarica, and pollen records from an archaeological profile and from a nearby core were analysed. Numerous charred grains of cultivated cereals together with fossil seeds of Chenopodium sp. demonstrate that during the occupation of the settlement at Hočevarica, agriculture was well established. The majority of identified grains were of Hordeum vulgare (cultivated barley) and the rest were Triticum monococcum and T. turgidum ssp. dicoccum (cultivated wheats). Large amounts of cereal pollen and pollen of Chenopodiaceae also suggest strong human impact on the surrounding vegetation and landscape. Pollen and archaeobotanical data from Hočevarica show a large consistency in timing of the appearance of agriculture. In the pollen record from the core at Hočevarica a significant increase (up to 40%) in cereal pollen was detected at 4881 ± 50 B.P. (3770-3630 cal B.C.). Charred cereal grains were dated to 4800 ± 40 B.P. (3650-3520 cal B.C.). The grains of cultivated cereals from Hočevarica represent the oldest archaeobotanical evidence for agriculture in central Slovenia. Received February 18, 2002 / Accepted October 21, 2002     

Vegetation dynamics of south-western Italy in the last 28 kyr inferred from pollen analysis of a Tyrrhenian Sea core

A continuous pollen record covering the last 28 kyr was obtained from core C106 collected in the Bay of Salerno in the southern Tyrrhenian Basin, seven radiocarbon dates and the recognition of two tephra layers (Y3 and Pompeii Pumice) providing good chronological constraints. The clear climatic signal given by the pollen spectra integrated by isotopic data, combined with comparisons with other Mediterranean sites, allowed the Last Glacial, Late Glacial and Holocene periods to be distinguished in the core. In particular, the Last Glacial period is characterised by large quantities of herbaceous and steppe elements such as Artemisia. The beginning of the Late Glacial has been correlated with the first increase of deciduous Quercus and the reduction of steppe and herbaceous elements. The Younger Dryas event is recorded only by oxygen isotopes while the vegetation does not seem to change, as in other Mediterranean sites. The Holocene corresponds to rich deciduous and evergreen forests. The first features which could be interpreted as signs of human presence are represented by a few grains of Juglans, Castanea and cereal-type while intensive olive cultivation and deforestation seem to fall within the Middle Ages. Received October 10, 2001 / Accepted June 20, 2002 Correspondence to: Elda Russo Ermolli     

Archaeobotany of capers (Capparis) (Capparaceae)

The origins of capers, their use and cultivation are discussed. Capers seeds and charcoal are often recovered from archaeological sites of the Mediterranean and West Asia. These are referred to as C. Spinosa L. This is mostly a group of cultivars restricted to localities surrounding the Western Mediterranean and some places in the Eastern Mediterranean. Identification of the findings is discussed in terms of seed morphology, present distribution and ancient uses of C. aegyptia Lam., C. sicula Veill., C. cartilaginea Decne, C. orientalis Veill., C. decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. and other species. Citations of Capparis in early Rabbinic, Mesopotamian and Greco-Roman texts are presented. Received June 3, 2002 / Accepted October 8, 2002 Correspondence to: D. Rivera     

An experimental approach to Neolithic shifting cultivation

Archaeobotanical data from Late Neolithic lake-shore dwellings (4300-3500 cal B.C.) in the northern Pre-alpine lowlands are interpreted in different ways. The presence of permanent arable fields as well as arable fields with short fallow phases and shifting cultivation with slash-and-burn has been discussed. To test these hypotheses experimentally we have been conducting tests in a forest northeast of Stuttgart since 1994. The slightly south-exposed experimental area of approximately 4.5 ha on a loess soil is covered by mixed deciduous forest, is available for at least 20 years and has been divided into 34 plots of 30 × 30 m. Up to 2001, five plots were used for experiments. The normal procedure is clearing, burning the dry small timber (less than 10 cm in diameter) and then growing winter cereals (bread wheat) for one season. The yields were between 2000 and 4000 kg grains per ha. The harvest was more or less free from weeds. First attempts with summer crops gave much lower yields of about 1100 kg grains per ha. Continuous cereal growing on the same place in the following years resulted in minimal to zero yields, mainly due to vigorous weed growth. These weeds are not crop weeds, but forest perennials of clearings and forest fringes. Ploughing to remove the weeds is not possible, because of the presence of roots and tree-stumps, most of them still living. Weed regulation by hoeing, burning or cattle grazing remains to be tested. Protection of the crop from game and birds is by fences and nets, but protection from mice seems difficult. In the spectra from the pollen traps, clearing and burning are strongly indicated, but cereal growing only slightly. Received July 31, 2001 / Accepted April 9, 2002     

Biostratigraphy and <Superscript>14</Superscript>C dating of a lake sediment sequence on the north-west Estonian carbonaceous plateau,interpreted in terms of human impact in the surroundings

The sediment stratigraphy of a medium-sized mixotrophic lake (Ruila) situated below the highest shoreline of the Baltic Ice Lake in the West-Estonian Lowland is described. The lake is without natural inlets our outlets. The reconstruction of vegetation and land-use history based on pollen data, combined with available archaeological data and detailed ¹⁴C dating allows us to give a provisional reconstruction of the temporal and spatial pattern of natural and human induced environmental changes in north-west Estonia during the Holocene. Both radiocarbon dates derived from terrestrial macrofossil dating by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) and conventional dating of bulk lake sediment are discussed. The isolation of the lake basin from the Yoldia Sea took place ca. 9700 cal B. C. The Ancylus Lake transgression at ca. 8400 cal B. C. did not reach the basin, but caused a ground water rise, seen in the sediment stratigraphy of the lake. The first signs of human impact on the pollen record appear ca. 5400 cal B. C. (Late Mesolithic). The history of arable farming has been divided into three periods: 1) introduction of crop cultivation and animal husbandry (1500 cal B. C. – A. D. 500); 2) establishment of animal husbandry A. D. 500–1000) and 3) establishment of crop cultivation and intensive cattle breeding (A. D. 1000–today). Due to unfavourable eda-phic conditions the introduction of arable farming was delayed for more than 1000 years compared with elsewhere on the north coast of Esotnia, and intensity of land-use never reached the same proportion as in these areas. Received August 15, 2001 / Accepted August 5, 2002 Correspondence to: Leili Saarse     

The embalming of the ancestors of the Dutch royal family

During the restoration of the main church in Breda (the Netherlands), the city archaeologists rediscovered a tomb with remains of the ancestors of the Dutch royal family. Research was carried out prior to the reburial of the remains. The combination of historical, osteological, dendrochronological and ¹⁴C data provided names and dates for 7 of the 8 embalmed bodies. The tomb was in use between A.D. 1475 and 1526. Archaeobotanical results could be compared with several recipes for embalming from the same period. Strikingly many macroremains were found where mainly pollen was expected. This could mean the bodies were resting on a bed of herbs and spices, but it could also have been due to the lack of confidence of the embalmers; they may have used all the available aromatics to conceal the smell of the corpse. At least some of the species were imported from the Mediterranean and/or subtropical regions, but others were probably locally cultivated. Received August 27, 2001 / Accepted April 1, 2002