Rhizopus stolonifer mediated biosynthesis of biocompatible cadmium chalcogenide quantum dots

We report an efficient method to biosynthesize biocompatible cadmium telluride and cadmium sulphide quantum dots from the fungus Rhizopus stolonifer. The suspension of the quantum dots exhibited purple and greenish-blue luminescence respectively upon UV light illumination. Photoluminescence spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and transmission electron microscopy confirms the formation of the quantum dots. From the photoluminescence spectrum the emission maxima is found to be 424 and 476 nm respectively. The X-ray diffraction of the quantum dots matches with results reported in literature. The 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay for cell viability evaluation carried out on 3-days transfer, inoculum 3 × 10⁵ cells, embryonic fibroblast cells lines shows that more than 80% of the cells are viable even after 48 h, indicating the biocompatible nature of the quantum dots. A good contrast in imaging has been obtained upon incorporating the quantum dots in human breast adenocarcinoma Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 cell lines.     

Copper oxide nanoparticles induce autophagic cell death in a549 cells

Metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) are among the most highly produced nanomaterials, and have many diverse functions in catalysis, environmental remediation, as sensors, and in the production of personal care products. In this study, the toxicity of several widely used metal oxide NPs such as copper oxide, silica, titanium oxide and ferric oxide NPs, were evaluated In vitro. We exposed A549, H1650 and CNE-2Z cell lines to metal oxide NPs, and found CuO NPs to be the most toxic, SiO2 mild toxic, while the other metal oxide NPs had little effect on cell viability. Furthermore, the autophagic biomarker LC3-II significantly increased in A549 cells treated with CuO NPs, and the use of the autophagy inhibitors wortmannin and 3-methyladenin significantly improved cell survival. These results indicate that the cytoxicity of CuO NPs may involve the autophagic pathway in A549 cells.     

含镉量子点的毒性研究进展

含镉量子点是典型的量子点,近年来受到广泛研究。含镉量子点的潜在毒性是其在生物成像及生物医药方面应用和发展的关键制约因素,因此,对其毒性作用的研究具有重要意义。目前对含镉量子点的体外毒性研究主要集中在人肝癌细胞(HepG2)、神经分泌细胞(PC12)等细胞实验及斑马鱼胚胎体外培养实验。体内毒性研究包括小鼠等动物实验。这些研究证实,量子点对HepG2等细胞系和小鼠、贻贝等动物均具细胞毒性。研究者们普遍认为,量子点是通过释放其组成中的重金属,诱导生物体产生活性氧自由基,进而引发细胞凋亡或自噬,但对量子点的具体毒性作用机制并不完全清楚。该文对含镉量子点的体内和体外毒性研究工作进展进行了综述,包括含镉量子点对肝肾细胞、神经细胞、血液细胞及免疫细胞等体外毒性研究工作,对陆生及水生动物等的体内毒性研究工作,旨在更好、更全面地评估含镉量子点的毒性,为今后对量子点的毒性作用机制研究提供方向,促进含镉量子点在生物医学方面的发展和应用。     

Detection of caspase activation in situ by fluorochrome-labeled caspase inhibitors

Apoptosis is dependent on the activation of a group of proteolytic enzymes called caspases. Caspase activation can be detected by immunoblotting using caspase-specific antibodies or by caspase activity measurement employing pro-fluorescent substrates that become fluorescent upon cleavage by the caspase. Most of these methods require the preparation of cell extracts and, therefore, are not suitable for the detection of active caspases within the living cell. Using FAM-VAD-FMK, we have developed a simple and sensitive assay for the detection of caspase activity in living cells. FAM-VAD-FMK is a carboxyfluorescein (FAM) derivative of benzyloxycarbonyl-valine-alanine-aspartic acid-fluoromethyl ketone (zVAD-FMK), which is a potent broad-spectrum inhibitor of caspases. FAM-VAD-FMK enters the cell and irreversibly binds to activated caspases. Cells containing bound FAM-VAD-FMK can be analyzed by flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, or a fluorescence plate reader. Using FAM-VAD-FMK, we have measured caspase activation in live non-adherent and adherent cells. We show that FAM-VAD-FMK labeled Jurkat and HeLa cells that had undergone apoptosis following treatment with camptothecin or staurosporine. Non-stimulated negative control cells were not stained. Pretreatment with the general caspase inhibitor zVAD-FMK blocked caspase-specific staining in induced Jurkat and HeLa cells. Pretreatment of staurosporine-induced Jurkat cells with FAM-VAD-FMK inhibited affinity labeling of caspase-3, -6, and -7, blocked caspase-specific cell staining, and led to the inhibition of apoptosis. In contrast, the fluorescent control inhibitor FAM-FA-FMK had no effect. Measurement of caspase activation in 96-well plates showed a 3- to 5-fold increase in FAM-fluorescence in staurosporine-treated cells compared to control cells. In summary, we show that FAM-VAD-FMK is a versatile and specific tool for detecting activated caspases in living cells.     

Structure, expression, and function of the Xenopus laevis caspase family

Caspases, a family of cysteine proteases, have been recognized as the central executors of programmed cell death. Nonetheless, the information on the caspase family has been limited to mammals, Drosophila, and nematodes. To examine the structure and characterization of the Xenopus caspase family, we have cloned the cDNAs encoding caspase-2 and -6-10 in addition to caspase-1 and -3, which we characterized previously (Yaoita, Y., and Nakajima, K. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 5122-5127). First, the existence of these caspases in frog suggests that the caspase cascades clarified in mammals are conserved at least from Amphibia. Interestingly, Xenopus caspase-1, -8, and -10 (especially caspase-8) showed a lower degree of identity to human equivalents than the other caspases. Second, mRNAs of many caspases increased during the climax of metamorphosis in regressing organs, tail, and intestine, where programmed cell death occurs, but not in apoptotic tail-derived cultured cells (XLT-15-11) treated with thyroid hormone, showing that new RNA synthesis of caspases is dispensable to programmed cell death. Third, comparison of human and Xenopus caspase sequences implies that some proposed regulations of human caspases are not conserved in frog.     

量子点荧光技术标记肿瘤细胞中HSP的应用研究

目的探讨量子点荧光技术对人肾癌细胞株(ACHN)中不同HSP进行标记的可行性应用。方法利用量子点的荧光特性,免疫细胞化学方法检测体外培养的ACHN细胞中量子点特异性标记的HSP70、HSP90、HSPgp96的表达情况。结果共聚焦荧光显微镜下可见ACHN细胞中HSP70、HSP90、HSPgp96均有明显表达,呈现均匀分布的橙红色强荧光,且量子点在持续激发30分钟后无荧光淬灭发生。结论量子点荧光标记技术能够对不同HSP进行标记,且与传统的标记方法相比具有显著优点,可作为一种新型的检测技术应用于科研及临床标记检测中。     

自噬在声动力疗法抑制C6胶质瘤细胞增殖中的作用

目的:探讨自噬在血卟啉单甲醚(Hematoporphyrin monomethyl ether,HMME)介导的声动力疗法(Sonodynamic therapy,SDT)抑制C6胶质瘤细胞增殖中的作用。方法:选取对数期生长的C6胶质瘤细胞并随机分为四组:对照组(未予处理)、超声组(单独超声照射)、HMME组(单独加入HMME)、SDT组(超声照射+HMME)。透射电镜观察SDT处理的C6胶质瘤细胞中自噬体数量的改变。应用qRT-PCR和免疫印迹分析SDT处理对C6胶质瘤细胞中的LC3、Beclin1、Bcl-2 m RNA及蛋白表达水平的影响。MTT检测C6胶质瘤细胞的活力变化。结果:透射电子显微镜显示SDT组自噬体数量较对照组明显增多。SDT组C6胶质瘤细胞中微管相关蛋白1轻链3 (Microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3, LC3)、Beclin1 m RNA和蛋白水平高于对照组,B细胞淋巴瘤-2(B cell lymphoma-2, Bcl-2) m RNA和蛋白水平低于对照组。与对照组相比,SDT组C6胶质瘤细胞存活率从0 h至6 h逐渐下降,从12 h至72 h逐渐升高。3-甲基腺嘌呤(3-Methyladenine,3-MA)+SDT、氯喹(Chloroquine,CQ)+SDT处理后C6胶质瘤细胞存活率较SDT组明显降低。结论:SDT可能通过诱导自噬抑制C6胶质瘤细胞增殖。     

Multiparameter measurement of caspase 3 activation and apoptotic cell death in NT2 neuronal precursor cells using high-content analysis

Caspase activation is a component of a number of neurodegenerative disorders, including stroke. In this study, the authors describe a multiplexed assay for caspase 3 activation, nuclear condensation, and cell viability in a neuronal precursor cell line Ntera-2, injured with staurosporine and etoposide. Using a high-content screening approach, cells were identified by staining with the nuclear stain Hoechst 33342; cell viability was measured by staining cells with YoPro-1, which is taken up by damaged cells but excluded from healthy cells; and caspase 3/7 activation was detected using the cell-permeable probe PhiPhi-Lux, which becomes fluorescent when cleaved by active caspase 3 or 7. These 3 dyes were detected simultaneously using a 4-band pass filter set on a Cellomics Array scan. The authors used peptide-fmk inhibitors selective for a variety of caspases, demonstrating that the injury is mediated primarily through caspase 3 or 7, although other caspases or related proteases may play a minor role. The general caspase inhibitor zVAD-fmkwas able to block cell death and caspase activation with the highest potency. The caspase 3 selective inhibitor DEVD-fmkwas almost as potent as zVAD-fmk; other peptide caspase inhibitors displayed only modest inhibition of cell death. This assay was also used as a high-content screening tool for the evaluation of novel caspase 3 inhibitors for the potential treatment of degenerative disorders.     

Zinc oxide-doped poly(urethane) spider web nanofibrous scaffold via one-step electrospinning: a novel matrix for tissue engineering

Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanostructures have been commonly studied for electronic purposes due to their unique piezoelectric and catalytic properties; however, recently, they have been also exploited for biomedical applications. The purpose of this study was to fabricate ZnO-doped poly(urethane) (PU) nanocomposite via one-step electrospinning technique. The utilized nanocomposite was prepared by using colloidal gel composed of ZnO and PU, and the obtained mats were vacuum dried at 60 °C overnight. The physicochemical characterization of as-spun composite nanofibers was carried out by X-ray diffraction pattern, field emission scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy, whereas the thermal behavior was analyzed by thermogravimetric analysis. The viability, attachment, and proliferation of NIH 3T3 mouse fibroblast cells on the ZnO/PU composite nanofibers were analyzed by in vitro cell compatibility test. The morphological features of the cells attached on nanofibers were examined by Bio-SEM. We conclude that the electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds with unique spider nets had good biocompatibility. Cytotoxicity experiments indicated that the mouse fibroblasts could attach to the nanocomposite after being cultured. Thus, the current work demonstrates that the as-synthesized ZnO/PU hybrid nanofibers represent a promising biomaterial to be exploited for various tissue engineering applications.     

Staphylococcus aureus alpha-toxin-induced cell death: predominant necrosis despite apoptotic caspase activation

Recent data suggest that alpha-toxin, the major hemolysin of Staphylococcus aureus, induces cell death via the classical apoptotic pathway. Here we demonstrate, however, that although zVAD-fmk or overexpression of Bcl-2 completely abrogated caspase activation and internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, they did not significantly affect alpha-toxin-induced death of Jurkat T or MCF-7 breast carcinoma cells. Caspase inhibition had also no effect on alpha-toxin-induced lactate dehydrogenase release and ATP depletion. Furthermore, whereas early assessment of apoptosis induction by CD95 resulted solely in the generation of cells positive for active caspases that were, however, not yet permeable for propidium iodide, a substantial proportion of alpha-toxin-treated cells were positive for both active caspases and PI. Finally, electron microscopy demonstrated that even in the presence of active caspases, alpha-toxin-treated cells displayed a necrotic morphology characterized by cell swelling and cytoplasmic vacuolation. Together, our data suggest that alpha-toxin-induced cell death proceeds even in the presence of activated caspases, at least partially, in a caspase-independent, necrotic-like manner.     

Co-culture of C2C12 and 3T3-L1 preadipocyte cells alters the gene expression of calpains, caspases and heat shock proteins

The present study was carried out to understand the co-culture effect of C2C12 and 3T3-L1 preadipocyte cells on calpain, caspase, and heat shock protein (Hsp) systems. Calpains, caspases, and heat shock proteins play critical roles in the growth and development of mammalian cells. Cells were co-cultured using transwell inserts with a 0.4-??m porous membrane to separate C2C12 and 3T3-L1 preadipocyte cells. Each cell type was grown independently on the transwell plates. Following cell differentiation, inserts containing 3T3-L1 cells were transferred to C2C12 plates and inserts containing C2C12 transferred to 3T3-L1 plates. Following co-culture for 24 and 48?h, the cells in the lower well were harvested for analysis. Calpains include ??-calpain, m-calpain, and their specific inhibitor calpastatin. The expression pattern of ??-calpain did not change in the co-cultured C2C12 and 3T3-L1 cells, whereas m-capain mRNA expression significantly reduced in the 48-h co-cultured 3T3-L1 cells. Calpastatin mRNA expression significantly increased in the 48-h co-cultured C2C12 cells. Caspase-7 mRNA expression did not change in the 24- and 48-h co-cultured C2C12 and 3T3-L1 cells. Caspase-3 mRNA expression significantly reduced in the 24- and 48-h co-cultured 3T3-L1 cells; caspase-9 mRNA had a significant reduction only at 48?h, whereas caspase-9 mRNA expression significantly increased in the 48-h co-cultured C2C12 cells. Hsp27 and Hsp90 mRNA expressions are significantly reduced in the 24- and 48-h co-cultured C2C12 and 3T3-L1 cells, whereas Hsp70 mRNA expression significantly increased in the 48-h co-cultured 3T3-L1 cells. The co-culture reflects three-dimensional views of C2C12 and 3T3-L1 cell types as in vivo, which is quite distinct from the one-dimensional monocultured C2C12 and 3T3-L1 cells.     

Curcumin induces concentration-dependent alterations in mitochondrial function through ROS in C2C12 mouse myoblasts

Curcumin exhibits antioxidant properties in normal cells where the uptake is low, unlike in tumor cells where uptake is high and curcumin increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and cell death. Mitochondria are the main source and primary target of cellular ROS. We hypothesized that curcumin would regulate cellular redox status and mitochondrial function, depending on cell sensitivity and/or curcumin concentration in normal cells. We examined the differences between low and high concentrations of curcumin, with specific attention focused on ROS levels, mitochondrial function, and cell viability in mouse C2C12 myoblast under normal and simulated conditions of diabetes. Cells incubated with high concentrations of curcumin (10–50 μM) resulted in decreased cell viability and sustained robust increases in ROS levels. Mechanistic studies showed that increased ROS levels in cells incubated with 20 μM curcumin induced opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pores and subsequent release of cytochrome c, activation of caspases 9 and 3/7, and apoptotic cell death. Low concentrations of curcumin (1–5 μM) did not affect cell viability, but induced a mild increase in ROS levels, which peaked at 2 hr after the treatment. Incubation with 5 μM curcumin also induced ROS-dependent increases in mitochondrial mass and membrane potential. Finally, pretreatment with 5 μM curcumin prevented high glucose-induced oxidative cell injury. Our study suggests that mitochondria respond differentially depending on curcumin concentration-dependent induction of ROS. The end result is either cell protection or death. Curcumin may be an effective therapeutic target for diabetes and other mitochondrial diseases when used in low concentrations.     

Use of fluorescently labeled caspase inhibitors as affinity labels to detect activated caspases

Activation of caspases is the key event of apoptosis and different approaches were developed to assay it. To detect their activation in situ, we applied fluorochrome labeled inhibitors of caspases (FLICA) as affinity labels of active centers of these enzymes. The FLICA ligands are fluorescein or sulforhodamine conjugated peptide-fluoromethyl ketones that covalently bind to enzymatic centers of caspases with 1:1 stoichiometry. The specificity of FLICA towards individual caspases is provided by the peptide sequence of amino acids. Exposure of live cells to FLICA results in uptake of these ligands and their binding to activated caspases; unbound FLICA is removed by cell rinse. Cells labeled with FLICA can be examined by fluorescence microscopy or subjected to quantitative analysis by cytometry. Intracellular binding sites of FLICA are consistent with known localization of caspases. Covalent binding of FLICA allowed us to identify the labeled proteins by immunoblotting: the proteins that bound individual FLICAs had molecular weight between 17 and 22 kDa, which corresponds to large subunits of the caspases. Detection of caspases activation by FLICA can be combined with other markers of apoptosis or cell cycle for multiparametric analysis. Because FLICA are caspase inhibitors they arrest the process of apoptosis preventing cell disintegration. The stathmo-apoptotic method was developed, therefore, that allows one to assay cumulative apoptotic index over long period of time and estimate the rate of cell entry into apoptosis for large cell populations. FLICA offers a rapid and convenient assay of caspases activation and can also be used to accurately estimate the incidence of apoptosis.     

Significance of the caspase family in Helicobacter pylori induced gastric epithelial apoptosis

Background and Aims. H. pylori infection results in an increased epithelial apoptosis in gastritis and duodenal ulcer patients. We investigated the role and type of activation of caspases in H. pylori‐induced apoptosis in gastric epithelial cells. Methods. Differentiated human gastric cancer cells (AGS) and human gastric mucous cell primary cultures were incubated with H. pylori for 0.5–24 hours in RPMI 1640 medium, and the effects on cell viability, epithelial apoptosis, and activity of caspases were monitored. Apoptosis was analyzed by detection of DNA‐fragments by Hoechst stain®, DNA‐laddering, and Histone‐ELISA. Activities of caspases were determined in fluorogenic assays and by Western blotting. Cleavage of BID and release of cytochrome c were analyzed by Western blot. Significance of caspase activation was investigated by preincubation of gastric epithelial cells with cell permeable specific caspase inhibitors. Results. Incubation of gastric epithelial cells with H. pylori caused a time and concentration dependent induction of DNA fragmentation (3‐fold increase), cleavage of BID, release of cytochrome c and a concomittant sequential activation of caspase‐9 (4‐fold), caspase‐8 (2‐fold), caspase‐6 (2‐fold), and caspase‐3 (6‐fold). No effects on caspase‐1 and ‐7 were observed. Activation of caspases preceded the induction of DNA fragmentation. Apoptosis could be inhibited by prior incubation with the inhibitors of caspase‐3, ‐8, and ‐9, but not with that of caspase‐1. Conclusions. Activation of certain caspases and activation of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway are essential for H. pylori induced apoptosis in gastric epithelial cells.     

Activation of caspase pathways during iron chelator-mediated apoptosis

Iron chelators have traditionally been used in the treatment of iron overload. Recently, chelators have also been explored for their ability to limit oxidant damage in cardiovascular, neurologic, and inflammatory disease as well as to serve as anti-cancer agents. To determine the mechanism of cell death induced by iron chelators, we assessed the time course and pathways of caspase activation during apoptosis induced by iron chelators. We report that the chelator tachpyridine sequentially activates caspases 9, 3, and 8. These caspases were also activated by the structurally unrelated chelators dipyridyl and desferrioxamine. The critical role of caspase activation in cell death was supported by microinjection experiments demonstrating that p35, a broad spectrum caspase inhibitor, protected HeLa cells from chelator-induced cell death. Apoptosis mediated by tachpyridine was not prevented by blocking the CD95 death receptor pathway with a Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD) dominant-negative mutant. In contrast, chelator-mediated cell death was blocked in cells microinjected with Bcl-XL and completely inhibited in cells microinjected with a dominant-negative caspase 9 expression vector. Caspase activation was not observed in cells treated with N-methyl tachpyridine, an N-alkylated derivative of tachpyridine which lacks an ability to react with iron. These results suggest that activation of a mitochondrial caspase pathway is an important mechanism by which iron chelators induce cell death.     

drICE is an essential caspase required for apoptotic activity in Drosophila cells.

Caspases are involved in the execution of cell death in all multicellular organisms so far studied, including the nematode worm, fruit fly and vertebrates. While Caenorhabditis elegans has only a single identified caspase, CED-3, whose activity is absolutely required for all developmental programmed cell deaths, most mammalian cell types express multiple caspases with varying specificities. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is genetically tractable, less complex than vertebrates and possesses two known caspases, DCP-1 and drICE. The fly may therefore provide a good model system for examining the hierarchy and relative roles of individual caspases in the execution of apoptosis. We have examined the role of drICE in in vitro apoptosis of the D.melanogaster cell line S2. We show that cytoplasmic lysates made from S2 cells undergoing apoptosis induced by either reaper (rpr) expression or cycloheximide treatment contain a caspase activity with DEVD specificity which can cleave p35, lamin DmO, drICE and DCP-1 in vitro, and which can trigger chromatin condensation in isolated nuclei. Using antibodies specific to drICE, we show that immunodepletion of drICE from these lysates is sufficient to remove most measurable in vitro apoptotic activity, and that re-addition of exogenous drICE to such immunodepleted lysates restores apoptotic activity. We conclude that, at least in S2 cells, drICE can be the sole caspase effector of apoptosis.     

A generalized caspase inhibitor disrupts early mammalian development

The role and mechanism of cell death in early mammalian embryos is not well understood. In mouse embryos collected after fertilization and maintained in vitro until blastula formation, two instances of cell death are observed: the polar bodies and one or two cells near the equator, at the junction of the inner cell mass to the prototrophoblast. Inhibitors of caspases do not block the death of the polar bodies. Inhibitors of caspases 3, 7 and 8 do not affect post-cavitation death, but the pan-caspase inhibitor zVAD-FMK, when applied at the 1-2 cell stage, causes an expansion of post-cavitation death and ultimately malformation or death of the embryo. Our results indicate that the early deaths are not caspase-dependent and that there is a role for caspase activity in early embryos, which is not related to cell death.     

Cholecystokinin induces caspase activation and mitochondrial dysfunction in pancreatic acinar cells. Roles in cell injury processes of pancreatitis

Apoptosis and necrosis are critical parameters of pancreatitis, the mechanisms of which remain unknown. Many characteristics of pancreatitis can be studied in vitro in pancreatic acini treated with high doses of cholecystokinin (CCK). We show here that CCK stimulates apoptosis and death signaling pathways in rat pancreatic acinar cells, including caspase activation, cytochrome c release, and mitochondrial depolarization. The mitochondrial dysfunction is mediated by upstream caspases (possibly caspase-8) and, in turn, leads to activation of caspase-3. CCK causes mitochondrial alterations through both permeability transition pore-dependent (cytochrome c release) and permeability transition pore-independent (mitochondrial depolarization) mechanisms. Caspase activation and mitochondrial alterations also occur in untreated pancreatic acinar cells; however, the underlying mechanisms are different. In particular, caspases protect untreated acinar cells from mitochondrial damage. We found that caspases not only mediate apoptosis but also regulate other parameters of CCK-induced acinar cell injury that are characteristic of pancreatitis; in particular, caspases negatively regulate necrosis and trypsin activation in acinar cells. The results suggest that the observed signaling pathways regulate parenchymal cell injury and death in CCK-induced pancreatitis. Protection against necrosis and trypsin activation by caspases can explain why the severity of pancreatitis in experimental models correlates inversely with the extent of apoptosis.     

Bortezomib inhibits C2C12 growth by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis

Proteosome inhibitors such as bortezomib (BTZ) have been used to treat muscle wasting in animal models. However, direct effect of BTZ on skeletal muscle cells has not been reported. In the present study, our data showed that C2C12 cells exhibited a dose-dependent decrease in cell viability in response to increasing concentrations of BTZ. Consistent with the results of cell viability, Annexin V/PI analysis showed a significant increase in apoptosis after exposing the cells to BTZ for 24 h. The detection of cleaved caspase-3 further confirmed apoptosis. The apoptosis induced by BTZ was associated with reduced expression of p-ERK. Cell cycle analysis revealed that C2C12 cells underwent G2/M cell cycle arrest when incubated with BTZ for 24 h. Furthermore, BTZ inhibited formation of multinucleated myotubes. The inhibition of myotube formation was accompanied by decreased expression of Myogenin. Our data suggest that BTZ induces cell death and inhibits differentiation of C2C12 cells at clinically relevant doses.