Crossing the Tasman Sea: Inferring the introduction history of Litoria aurea and Litoria raniformis (Anura: Hylidae) from Australia into New Zealand

Abstract The amphibian fauna of New Zealand consists of three native species (Leiopelma spp.), and three Litoria species introduced from Australia in the last 140 years. We conducted a molecular phylogeographical study that aimed to identify the Australian origins of two species, Litoria aurea and Litoria raniformis. We used partial sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (cox1) gene from 59 specimens sampled from across the range of both species to identify the probable source populations for the New Zealand introductions, and to describe the current genetic diversity among New Zealand Litoria populations. Our genetic data suggest that L. aurea was introduced into the North Island of New Zealand from two regions in Australia, once from the northern part of coastal New South Wales and once from the southern part of coastal New South Wales. Our data indicate that L. raniformis introductions originated from the Melbourne region of southern Victoria and once established in the South Island of New Zealand, the species subsequently spread throughout both islands. In addition, we found a distinct haplotype in L. raniformis from Tasmania that strongly suggests, contrary to earlier reports, that this species was not introduced into New Zealand from Tasmania. Finally, we identified two very distinctive mitochondrial lineages of L. raniformis within the mainland Australia distribution, which may be previously unrecognized species.     

Phylogeography reveals a North Island range extension for New Zealand's only sexually wing-dimorphic stonefly (Stenoperla helsoni)

Stenoperla helsoni is an endemic New Zealand stonefly characterised by distinctive sexually dimorphic wing loss. Previous distribution records indicated that this species was restricted to the South Island's Southern Alps, although our recent collections of wing-reduced specimens from a site in the Tararua Ranges suggest that this species may extend into the lower North Island. We amplified the mitochondrial COI gene to confirm the identity of North Island specimens, and to assess phylogeographic structuring within the species and genus. North Island specimens were confirmed as S. helsoni, indicating that this species has a much wider geographic range than previously thought. This broad distribution, combined with low levels of intraspecific divergence, suggests that female S. helsoni may be strong fliers, despite males being flightless. Distinct North Island and South Island populations were identified, with a 1.5% divergence between the two populations.     

Use of ISSR profiles and ITS-sequences to study the biogeography of alpine cushion plants in the genus Raoulia (Asteraceae)

Nuclear ITS sequences and ISSR profiles provide evidence that Raoulia rubra is endemic to the Tararua Range in the southern part of the North Island of New Zealand. Populations in the South Island previously ascribed to R. rubra are better ascribed to R. eximia. Our findings suggest that glaciation of the central mountains of the South Island during the last ice age have had a major impact on the evolution of the South Island cushion Raoulia species in New Zealand. However, simple hypotheses accounting for the effect of Pleistocene climate change are insufficient to explain patterns of endemism in the group.     

One haploid parent contributes 100% of the gene pool for a widespread species in northwest North America

The monoicous peatmoss Sphagnum subnitens has a tripartite distribution that includes disjunct population systems in Europe (including the Azores), northwestern North America and New Zealand. Regional genetic diversity was highest in European S. subnitens but in northwestern North America, a single microsatellite‐based multilocus haploid genotype was detected across 16 sites ranging from Coos County, Oregon, to Kavalga Island in the Western Aleutians (a distance of some 4115 km). Two multilocus haploid genotypes were detected across 14 sites on South Island, New Zealand. The microsatellite‐based regional genetic diversity detected in New Zealand and North American S. subnitens is the lowest reported for any Sphagnum. The low genetic diversity detected in both of these regions most likely resulted from a founder event associated with vegetative propagation and complete selfing, with one founding haploid plant in northwest North America and two in New Zealand. Thus, one plant appears to have contributed 100% of the gene pool for the population systems of S. subnitens occurring in northwest North America, and this is arguably the most genetically uniform group of plants having a widespread distribution yet detected. Although having a distribution spanning 12.5° of latitude and 56° of longitude, there was no evidence of any genetic diversification in S. subnitens in northwest North America. No genetic structure was detected among the three regions, and it appears that European plants of S. subnitens provided the source for New Zealand and northwest North American populations.     

Welcome back New Zealand: regional biogeography and Gondwanan origin of three endemic genera of mite harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones, Cyphophthalmi)

Aim Biogeographers have long been intrigued by New Zealand’s biota due to its unique combination of typical ‘continental’ and ‘island’ characteristics. The New Zealand plateau rifted from the former supercontinent Gondwana c. 80 Ma, and has been isolated from other land masses ever since. Therefore, the flora and fauna of New Zealand include lineages that are Gondwanan in origin, but also include a very large number of endemics. In this study, we analyse the evolutionary relationships of three genera of mite harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones, Cyphophthalmi) endemic to New Zealand, both to each other and to their temperate Gondwanan relatives found in Australia, Chile, Sri Lanka and South Africa. Location New Zealand (North Island, South Island and Stewart Island). Methods A total of 94 specimens of the family Pettalidae in the suborder Cyphophthalmi were studied, representing 31 species and subspecies belonging to three endemic genera from New Zealand (Aoraki, Neopurcellia and Rakaia) plus six other members of the family from Chile, South Africa, Sri Lanka and Australia. The phylogeny of these taxa was constructed using morphological and molecular data from five nuclear and mitochondrial genes (18S rRNA, 28S rRNA, 16S rRNA, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and histone H3, totalling c. 5 kb), which were analysed using dynamic as well as static homology under a variety of optimality criteria. Results The results showed that each of the three New Zealand cyphophthalmid genera is monophyletic, and occupies a distinct geographical region within the archipelago, grossly corresponding to palaeogeographical regions. All three genera of New Zealand mite harvestmen fall within the family Pettalidae with a classic temperate Gondwanan distribution, but they do not render any other genera paraphyletic. Main conclusions Our study shows that New Zealand’s three genera of mite harvestmen are unequivocally related to other members of the temperate Gondwanan family Pettalidae. Monophyly of each genus contradicts the idea of recent dispersal to New Zealand. Within New Zealand, striking biogeographical patterns are apparent in this group of short‐range endemics, particularly in the South Island. These patterns are interpreted in the light of New Zealand’s turbulent geological history and present‐day patterns of forest cover.     

Deeply divergent lineages of the widespread New Zealand amphipod Paracalliope fluviatilis revealed using allozyme and mitochondrial DNA analyses

1. We evaluated the population genetic structure of the common New Zealand amphipod Paracalliope fluviatilis using eight allozyme loci, and the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase c subunit I (COI) gene locus. Morphological analyses were also conducted to evaluate any phenotypic differences. Individuals belonging to P. fluviatilis were collected from a total of 14 freshwater fluvial habitats on the North and South Islands, New Zealand. 2. We found evidence for strong genetic differentiation among locations (Wright's F_ST > 0.25), and fixed differences (non‐shared alleles) at two of the eight allozyme loci indicating the possibility of previously unknown species. Analysis of a 545‐bp fragment of the COI locus was mostly congruent with the allozyme data and revealed the same deeply divergent lineages (sequence divergences up to 26%). 3. Clear genetic breaks were identified between North Island and South Island populations. North Island populations separated by <100 km also showed genetic differences between east and west draining watersheds (sequence divergence >12%). Accordingly, present‐day dispersal among hydrologically isolated habitats appears minimal for this taxon. 4. Although population differences were clearly shown by allozyme and mtDNA analyses, individuals were morphologically indistinguishable. This suggests that, as in North American and European taxa (e.g. Hyalella and Gammarus), morphological conservatism may be prevalent among New Zealand's freshwater amphipods. We conclude that molecular techniques, particularly the COI gene locus, may be powerful tools for resolving species that show no distinctive morphological differences.     

Genetic divergences pre-date Pleistocene glacial cycles in the New Zealand speckled skink, Oligosoma infrapunctatum

Aim To examine the hypothesis raised by Graham S. Hardy that Pleistocene glacial cycles suffice to explain divergence among lineages within the endemic New Zealand speckled skink, Oligosoma infrapunctatum Boulenger. Location Populations were sampled from across the entire range of the species, on the North and South Islands of New Zealand. Methods We sequenced the mitochondrial genes ND2 (550 bp), ND4 + tRNAs (773 bp) and cytochrome b (610 bp) of 45 individuals from 21 locations. Maximum likelihood, maximum parsimony and Bayesian methods were used for phylogenetic reconstruction. The Shimodaira–Hasegawa test was used to examine hypotheses about the taxonomic status of morphologically distinctive populations. Results Our analysis revealed four strongly supported clades within O. infrapunctatum. Clades were largely allopatric, except on the west coast of the South Island, where representatives from all four clades were found. Divergences among lineages within the species were extremely deep, reaching over 5%. Two contrasting phylogeographical patterns are evident within O. infrapunctatum. Main conclusions The deep genetic divisions we found suggest that O. infrapunctatum is a complex of cryptic species which diverged in the Pliocene, contrary to the existing Pleistocene‐based hypothesis. Although Pleistocene glacial cycles do not underlie major divergences within this species, they may be responsible for the shallower phylogeographical patterns that are found within O. infrapunctatum, which include a radiation of haplotypes in the Nelson and Westland regions.     

Evidence for breeding of Megadyptes penguins in the North Island at the time of human arrival

The arrival of humans in New Zealand around 750 years ago resulted in widespread faunal extinctions including the endemic Waitaha penguin (Megadyptes waitaha). Previously thought to have only bred on coastal South Island and Stewart Island, recent genetic reanalysis of prehistoric large penguin bones from the lower North Island indicates that the Waitaha penguin may have been a common resident. Here we synthesise previous studies and present new palaeontological and archaeological evidence to suggest that the Waitaha penguin was probably breeding in the lower North Island at the time of human arrival, and did not represent vagrant individuals from more southerly breeding colonies. The elimination of breeding Megadyptes from the North Island would add to the already significant avifaunal losses from New Zealand, of which the North Island suffered the greatest biodiversity loss after the arrival of humans.     

Phylogeography and ecological niche modelling of the New Zealand stick insect Clitarchus hookeri (White) support survival in multiple coastal refugia

Aim Increasing our understanding of the effects of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and determining the location of refugia requires studies on widely distributed species with dense sampling of populations. We have reconstructed the biogeographic history of Clitarchus hookeri (White), a widespread species of New Zealand stick insect that exhibits geographic parthenogenesis, using phylogeographic analysis and ecological niche modelling. Location New Zealand. Methods We used DNA sequence data from the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships among haplotypes from C. hookeri and two undescribed Clitarchus species. We also used distribution data from our own field surveys and museum records to reconstruct the geographic distribution of C. hookeri during the present and the LGM, using ecological niche modelling. Results The ecological niche models showed that the geographic distribution of C. hookeri has expanded dramatically since the LGM. Our model predicted large areas of suitable LGM habitat in upper North Island, and small patches along the east coast of South Island. The phylogeographic analysis shows that populations in the northern half of North Island contain much higher levels of genetic variation than those from southern North Island and South Island, and is congruent with the ecological niche model. The distribution of bisexual populations is also non-random, with males completely absent from South Island and very rare in southern North Island. Main conclusions During the LGM C. hookeri was most likely restricted to several refugia in upper North Island and one or more smaller refugia along the east coast of South Island. The unisexual populations predominate in post-glacial landscapes and are clearly favoured in the recolonization of such areas. Our study exemplifies the utility of integrating ecological niche modelling and phylogeographic analysis.     

Update on the Holantarctic Sphagnum ×falcatulum s.l. (Sphagnaceae) complex: S. irritans is associated with the allo-diploid plants

The Holantarctic Sphagnum ×falcatulum s.l. is a cryptic species complex comprised of the allo-allo-triploid S. ×falcatulum s.s. and its immediate progenitors: the haploid (S. cuspidatum) and an unnamed allo-diploid species. The Holantarctic distributions of the members of this complex are presently unclear. Prior genetic study has shown that (1) amphi-Pacific S. ×falcatulum s.s. is the most widespread Sphagna in the Holantarctic, (2) S. cuspidatum is present in Queensland, Australia, and (3) the allo-diploid plants occur on South Island, New Zealand. Using genetic and morphological analyses, we document the occurrence of S. ×falcatulum s.s. on mainland Australia and on North Island, New Zealand as well as the occurrence of the allo-diploid plants on Chatham Island, New Zealand. The allo-diploid plants on South Island and those on Chatham Island are found to be closely related and the Chatham Island population appears to have been established by long distance dispersal. It is concluded that the type of S. irritans, which was collected on Chatham Island, and the three Chatham Island allo-diploid specimens are the same taxon. Thus the allo-diploid plants are assigned to S. ×irritans. Having a history of inter-subgeneric hybridisation, there is notable morphological variation associated with S. ×irritans. Although several morphotypes occur in the South Island population, just one morphotype was detected among the Chatham Island specimens examined. Further study is required to determine both the genetic divergence between these two island populations as well as the taxonomic status of the various morphotypes associated with S. ×irritans.     

Severe pollen limitation in populations of the New Zealand shrub Alseuosmia macrophylla (Alseuosmiaceae) can be attributed to the loss of pollinating bird species

The loss of bird species following human colonization of New Zealand has raised concerns about the consequences for crucial ecosystem functions such as pollination. The understorey shrub Alseuosmia macrophylla (Alseuosmiaceae) exhibits characteristics typical of a bird pollination syndrome, but populations still persist in northern North Island forest remnants despite the local extinction of most endemic bird pollinators, leading to the suggestion that moths – rather than birds – may be the primary pollinators. The aim of this study was to quantify the importance of endemic birds as pollinators of A. macrophylla over several years by comparing plants on Little Barrier Island (LBI), where all extant endemic bird pollinators still occur, to plants at sites on the adjacent North Island in the Waitakere Ranges (WTK), where only one of these species remains common. Flowers on LBI were visited by endemic bellbirds (Anthornis melanura) and stitchbirds (Notiomystis cincta), while at WTK sites the most common visitors were the recently arrived silvereye (Zosterops lateralis) and the introduced honeybee (Apis mellifera), both of which acted principally as nectar robbers. Caged flowers on LBI had significantly lower fruit set than open flowers, and plants at WTK were significantly more pollen‐limited than plants on LBI. This provides evidence that the loss of endemic pollinating birds is the most likely reason for the high pollen limitation found in some North Island A. macrophylla populations, and the very low seed set of these populations could have serious implications for the long‐term persistence of this species.     

DECOUPLING OF SHORT‐ AND LONG‐DISTANCE DISPERSAL PATHWAYS IN THE ENDEMIC NEW ZEALAND SEAWEED CARPOPHYLLUM MASCHALOCARPUM (PHAEOPHYCEAE,FUCALES)1

The processes that produce and maintain genetic structure in organisms operate at different timescales and on different life‐history stages. In marine macroalgae, gene flow occurs through gamete/zygote dispersal and rafting by adult thalli. Population genetic patterns arise from this contemporary gene flow interacting with historical processes. We analyzed spatial patterns of mitochondrial DNA variation to investigate contemporary and historical dispersal patterns in the New Zealand endemic fucalean brown alga Carpophyllum maschalocarpum (Turner) Grev. Populations bounded by habitat discontinuities were often strongly differentiated from adjoining populations over scales of tens of kilometers and intrapopulation diversity was generally low, except for one region of northeast New Zealand (the Bay of Plenty). There was evidence of strong connectivity between the northern and eastern regions of New Zealand’s North Island and between the North and South Islands of New Zealand and the Chatham Islands (separated by 650 km of open ocean). Moderate haplotypic diversity was found in Chatham Islands populations, while other southern populations showed low diversity consistent with Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) retreat and subsequent recolonization. We suggest that ocean current patterns and prevailing westerly winds facilitate long‐distance dispersal by floating adult thalli, decoupling genetic differentiation of Chatham Island populations from dispersal potential at the gamete/zygote stage. This study highlights the importance of encompassing the entire range of a species when inferring dispersal patterns from genetic differentiation, as realized dispersal distances can be contingent on local or regional oceanographic and historical processes.     

Population structure within an alpine archipelago: strong signature of past climate change in the New Zealand rock wren (Xenicus gilviventris)

Naturally subdivided populations such as those occupying high‐altitude habitat patches of the ‘alpine archipelago’ can provide significant insight into past biogeographical change and serve as useful models for predicting future responses to anthropogenic climate change. Among New Zealand's alpine taxa, phylogenetic studies support two major radiations: the first correlating with geological forces (Pliocene uplift) and the second with climatic processes (Pleistocene glaciations). The rock wren (Xenicus gilviventris) is a threatened alpine passerine belonging to the endemic New Zealand wren family (Acanthisittidae). Rock wren constitute a widespread, naturally fragmented population, occurring in patches of suitable habitat over c. 900 m in altitude throughout the length of the South Island, New Zealand. We investigated the relative role of historical geological versus climatic processes in shaping the genetic structure of rock wren (N = 134) throughout their range. Using microsatellites combined with nuclear and mtDNA sequence data, we identify a deep north–south divergence in rock wren (3.7 ± 0.5% at cytochrome b) consistent with the glacial refugia hypothesis whereby populations were restricted in isolated refugia during the Pleistocene c. 2 Ma. This is the first study of an alpine vertebrate to test and provide strong evidence for the glacial refugia hypothesis as an explanation for the low endemicity central zone known as the biotic ‘gap’ in the South Island of New Zealand.     

Phylogeography of the New Zealand blue duck (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos</Emphasis>): implications for translocation and species recovery

Translocation of individuals among extant populations is an important tool in species conservation that allows managers to supplement dwindling populations and potentially alleviate the deleterious effects of inbreeding. Ideal translocation strategy should consider historical relationships among existing populations to avoid potential disruption of population subdivision and local adaptation. Here, we examine mitochondrial sequence variation in the endangered blue duck Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos, a New Zealand endemic riverine specialist, to facilitate informed decision making in future translocations. Behavioural observations suggest that blue duck dispersal is limited and may result in genetic structure within and between regional populations. We analysed 894 base pairs of mitochondrial control region in 78 adult blue ducks sampled from 11 river catchments across the species’ range (representing four regions in the North Island and three regions in the South Island) and found strong and significant genetic structure both within and among islands. These results, combined with a 2.0% sequence divergence between islands, indicates that North Island and South Island blue ducks should be treated as separate management units. The relationship between genetic differentiation and geographic distance for blue ducks on the South Island conformed to an “isolation by distance” pattern. Overall, we recommend that translocations of blue ducks should not be made between the North and the South Islands and those within each island should be restricted to neighbouring catchments.     

Comparative phylogeography of coastal limpets across a marine disjunction in New Zealand

Cook Strait, which separates the North and South Island of New Zealand, has been a transient, but re-occurring feature of the New Zealand land mass throughout the Pleistocene, maintaining its current width and depth for the past 5000 years. Historic land fragmentation coupled with the complex hydrography of the Greater Cook Strait region has created both biogeographic and phylogeographic disjunctions between the North and South Island in several marine species. Here we use mitochondrial cytochrome b DNA sequences of three endemic intertidal limpets, Cellana ornata, Cellana radians and Cellana flava to assess intraspecific phylogeographic patterns across Cook Strait and to look for interspecific concordance of ecological and evolutionary processes among closely related taxa. We sequenced 328-359 bp in 85-321 individuals from 8-31 populations spanning the biogeographic range of the three species. Intraspecific phylogeographic analyses show moderate to strong genetic discontinuity among North and South Island populations due to allopatric fragmentation. This pattern was broadly concordant across the three species and the observed divergence among this group of intertidal limpets (0.3-2.0%) is similar to that of previously studied subtidal organisms. For each species, divergence time calculations suggest contemporary North and South Island lineages diverged from their respective most recent common ancestor approximately 200 000 to 300 000 years before present (bp), significantly earlier than previous estimates in other coastal marine taxa that arose from a miscalculation of divergence time.     

Comparative phylogeography of two Agarophyton species in the New Zealand archipelago

Molecular studies have reported the coexistence of two species of Agarophyton in New Zealand: the newly described A.transtasmanicum with an apparently restricted distribution to some sites in the North Island, and the more widespread A.chilense. Here, we compared the distribution, genetic diversity, and structure of both Agarophyton species throughout the archipelago using sequences of the nuclear Internal Transcribed Spacer 2 (ITS2) marker. Agarophyton chilense’s distribution was continuous and extensive along the North and South Islands, Stewart Island, and Chatham Island, and the genetic clusters were mostly concordant with boundaries between biogeographic regions. In contrast, specimens of A.transtasmanicum were collected in four sites broadly distributed in both the North and South Islands, with no clear spatial structure of the genetic diversity. Populations, where the species co-occurred, tended to display similar levels in genetic diversity for the two species. Demographic inferences supported a postglacial demographic expansion for two A.chilense genetic clusters, one present in the South Island and the eastern coast of the North Island, and the other present in northern South Island. A third genetic cluster located on the western coast of the North Island had a signature of long-term demographic stability. For A.transtasmanicum, the skyline plot also suggested a postglacial demographic expansion. Last, we developed a new molecular tool to quickly and easily distinguish between the two Agarophyton species, which could be used to ease future fine-scale population studies, especially in areas where the two species coexist.     

Host Plant Specialization in the Sugarcane Aphid Melanaphis sacchari

Most aphids are highly specialized on one or two related plant species and generalist species often include sympatric populations adapted to different host plants. Our aim was to test the hypothesis of the existence of host specialized lineages of the aphid Melanaphis sacchari in Reunion Island. To this end, we investigated the genetic diversity of the aphid and its association with host plants by analyzing the effect of wild sorghum Sorghum bicolor subsp. verticilliflorum or sugarcane as host plants on the genetic structuring of populations and by performing laboratory host transfer experiments to detect trade-offs in host use. Genotyping of 31 samples with 10 microsatellite loci enabled identification of 13 multilocus genotypes (MLG). Three of these, Ms11, Ms16 and Ms15, were the most frequent ones. The genetic structure of the populations was linked to the host plants. Ms11 and Ms16 were significantly more frequently observed on sugarcane, while Ms15 was almost exclusively collected in colonies on wild sorghum. Laboratory transfer experiments demonstrated the existence of fitness trade-offs. An Ms11 isofemale lineage performed better on sugarcane than on sorghum, whereas an Ms15 lineage developed very poorly on sugarcane, and two Ms16 lineages showed no significant difference in performances between both hosts. Both field and laboratory results support the existence of host plant specialization in M. sacchari in Reunion Island, despite low genetic differentiation. This study illustrates the ability of asexual aphid lineages to rapidly undergo adaptive changes including shifting from one host plant to another.     

Genetic divergence of three freshwater isopod species from southern New Zealand

Aim We examined the biogeography of three freshwater isopod species (Austridotea annectens, A. lacustris, A. benhami), and tested the hypotheses that genetic differences would: (1) exist between geographic locations; and (2) correspond to known geological events (e.g. appearance of islands leading to the availability of habitat). Location Southern New Zealand, including South Island, Stewart Island, Campbell Island and Chatham Islands. Methods We examined specimens throughout the known species range from 12 populations of A. lacustris, five populations of A. annectens, and three populations of A. benhami, using mitochondrial DNA (cytochrome c oxidase I) sequence analyses. Results We resolved three main clades corresponding to the three species, with 16% sequence divergence between A. annectens and A. benhami, and 31% divergence between these species and A. lacustris. Divergence within A. benhami was < 2.0%. However, divergence within A. lacustris reached up to 10% with four main groupings: (1) Chatham Islands; (2) Campbell Island; (3) Fiordland; and (4) east coast South Island and Stewart Island. Divergence within A. annectens reached up to 4.4%, with two main groupings: (1) Chatham Islands and (2) east coast South Island and Stewart Island. Patterns of genetic divergence were most likely the result of geographical isolation among A. lacustris and A. annectens populations. In particular, the divergence of A. lacustris and A. annectens on Chatham Islands may correspond to the availability of this habitat c. 4 Ma, whereas the divergence of A. lacustris on the much older Campbell Island and in Fiordland may indicate either a rare founder event or a change in ocean circulation that resulted in their isolation from a once more widespread gene pool. Main conclusions The three New Zealand species of Austridotea are genetically distinct, with up to 31% divergence between species. Genetic variability was highest between populations of the two most widely distributed species, and divergence was greatest on islands distant from mainland New Zealand and in the discrete Fiordland region. The magnitude of genetic divergence of isopods on the Auckland and Chatham Islands is consistent with these populations having been founded in the Pliocene via oceanic dispersal from mainland New Zealand.     

New records of Acropsopilio neozealandiae (Forster), and remarks on the sexual status of the species (Arachnida: Opiliones: Caddidae)

Abstract

Acropsopilio neozealandiae (Forster) is a tiny endemic New Zealand harvestman previously reported from seven localities. Extensive pitfall collecting in the southern half of the North Island and northern quarter of the South Island produced 70 individuals, from 42 locations, documenting its local distribution. The collection method is described fully, to assist future work. All specimens that could be confidently identified were female, so it seems likely that A. neozealandiae reproduces, at least within our study areas, by parthenogenesis—as do at least two of its congeners. Our specimens showed no obvious morphological variation over their range.     

Phylogeography of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Leiopelma hochstetteri</Emphasis> reveals strong genetic structure and suggests new conservation priorities

Leiopelma hochstetteri belongs to a singular anuran lineage endemic to New Zealand that diverged from other frogs about 200 million years ago. The species now is reduced to a series of isolated populations in the northern half of the North Island and Great Barrier Island. We have used mitochondrial and nuclear sequence data to examine the genetic affinities of extant populations of L. hochstetteri. Phylogenetic reconstructions reveal that populations are highly structured. Each of the geographically isolated populations harbours independent mtDNA lineages as well as different degrees of nuDNA differentiation. Moreover, molecular dating reveals that this structure originated in the early Pleistocene. This pattern of genetic structure likely results from unfavourable climatic conditions during the Pleistocene combined with the low dispersal ability of the species. Isolated populations in forested refugia existed even in the southern part of the distribution of the species during glacial cycles. Previously published variation in chromosome numbers and isozyme data are consistent with the new evidence. We identified 13 evolutionary significant units (ESUs) that should serve as the focus for future management and conservation of this species.