基于肝癌细胞线粒体功能受损和caspase-3信号通路探讨罗哌卡因促进肝癌细胞凋亡的作用机制研究

摘要 目的：基于肝癌细胞线粒体功能受损和天冬氨酸蛋白水解酶3（caspase-3）信号通路探讨罗哌卡因促进肝癌细胞凋亡的作用机制。方法：选用细胞株人肝癌细胞BEL-7402进行实验研究。用不同浓度罗哌卡因处理BEL-7402细胞后,采用溴化噻唑蓝四氮唑（MTT）法检测肝癌细胞的增殖情况,光镜及4,6-二苯胺-2-苯吲哚二盐酸盐（DAPI）溶液染色观察细胞形态,台盼蓝染色法测定细胞活力,流式细胞术分析BEL-7402细胞的凋亡情况,电子显微镜下观察细胞线粒体,激光共聚焦显微镜观察caspase-3在BEL-7402细胞中的细胞核迁移情况,蛋白免疫印迹试验评价罗哌卡因对细胞质凋亡相关蛋白、线粒体凋亡相关蛋白、BEL-7402细胞和线粒体凋亡相关蛋白表达的影响。结果：罗哌卡因能够抑制肝癌细胞的生长,并呈剂量依赖性和时间依赖性。罗哌卡因可诱导BEL-7402细胞发生凋亡,显著增加BEL-7402细胞的凋亡率。罗哌卡因能够损伤肝癌细胞线粒体功能。激光共聚焦显微镜观察显示caspase-3分子迁移到细胞核。罗哌卡因与caspase-3相互作用,促进caspase-3向细胞核内迁移,刺激caspase-3和聚腺苷二磷酸核糖聚合酶（PARP-1）、天冬氨酸蛋白水解酶9（caspase-9）蛋白的表达,抑制B细胞淋巴瘤-2基因（Bcl-2）的表达,促进凋亡酶激活因子（Apaf-1）的表达,促进线粒体释放细胞色素C（Cytochrome C）,激活caspase-3活性。结论：罗哌卡因具有促进肝癌细胞凋亡的作用,其作用机制可能与破坏肝癌细胞线粒体功能和激活caspase-3信号通路有关。     

Caspase-3细胞定位信号的检测与分析

Caspase-3是凋亡过程中的重要作用蛋白。凋亡过程中,胞质定位的Caspase3被激活并进入细胞核中执行功能,但该定位变化的分子机制至今仍不清楚。分析caspase3中的细胞定位信号可以为深入了解该过程提供重要的线索。我们通过构建一系列含Caspase-3不同区段的截短突变体,与GFP融合表达,观察这些突变体在细胞中的定位,以鉴定Caspase-3中的核外运信号NES（Nuclear Export Signal）和核定位信号NLS（Nuclear Localization Signal）。Caspase-3中不存在明显的核定位信号NLS,但存在一个明显的核外运信号NES,该NES信号定位在caspase-3小亚基的C端（氨基酸220-245）。     

猪流行性腹泻病毒通过病毒蛋白酶激活Caspase-3诱导细胞凋亡

冠状病毒是一大类能够引起呼吸系统疾病,从而威胁人类健康的病毒．目前,对冠状病毒诱导细胞凋亡及其机制研究甚少.本研究以动物冠状病毒 猪流行性腹泻病毒(PEDV) 为模型探讨冠状病毒诱导细胞凋亡效应及其可能作用机制. 通过流式细胞术检测发现感染PEDV病毒后细胞凋亡率明显升高,且PEDV诱导细胞凋亡呈时间和剂量依赖性(P<0.05或P<0.01);进一步研究发现,冠状病毒木瓜样蛋白酶（PLP）在病毒引起凋亡过程中起重要作用.实验发现,转染PEDV-PLP质粒后,caspase-3活化体表达水平明显升高. 提示冠状病毒PLP蛋白酶通过激活caspase-3在病毒诱导细胞凋亡过程中起着关键作用. 以上结果为研究人类冠状病毒PLP蛋白功能及其通过细胞凋亡调节宿主抗病毒天然免疫机制提供重要基础.     

水飞蓟宾诱导肺腺癌Anip973细胞凋亡的分子机制研究

目的：探讨水飞蓟宾诱导肺腺癌Anip973细胞系细胞凋亡的分子机制。方法：采用MTT法、倒置显微镜和电子显微镜等形态学检测以及流式细胞仪（FCM）技术检测、DNALadder分析、凋亡分子PARP的表达检测细胞凋亡,同时进行凋亡相关蛋白Bax、Bcl-2、caspase-3和caspase-9表达活性分析。结果：（1）水飞蓟宾对人肺腺癌Anip973细胞系细胞的增殖有显著抑制作用;（2）水飞蓟宾作用Anip973细胞48h后,随着浓度的增加,倒置显微镜下可见细胞数目减少,胞体变小、变圆,到高浓度时出现较多的死亡细胞;（3）扫描电镜观察发现,随着水飞蓟宾作用浓度的增加,Anip973细胞中出现增多的凋亡细胞,凋亡细胞表现出典型的超微结构特征;（4）流式细胞仪检测的结果发现,随着药物作用时间的延长,Anip973细胞的G1期细胞比例增多,S期细胞明显减少,G2期细胞略有减少,并出现明显的凋亡峰。（5）水飞蓟宾作用后的Anip973细胞出现明显的DNALadder和PARP降解增加等凋亡特征;（6）水飞蓟宾作用后,Anip973细胞中的凋亡相关蛋白Bax表达增加、caspase-3和caspase-9酶活性增加,而Bcl-2表达降低。结论：水飞蓟宾在体外有抑制人肺腺癌细胞Anip973的增殖作用,并通过激活线粒体依赖的caspase凋亡通路,诱导其凋亡。     

FRET技术检测植物类caspase-3蛋白酶活性的质粒构建及其瞬时表达

植物细胞程序性死亡（programmed cell death,PCD）是一种由细胞内部程序控制的、主动的细胞死亡过程。在植物发育、逆境胁迫及超敏反应中,PCD都起着重要的作用。为检测植物PCD过程中类似动物细胞凋亡蛋白酶caspase-3的活性,构建了一个能够在活体植物细胞中实时检测类caspase-3蛋白酶激活的质粒PI—ECFP—EYFP。该质粒在植物细胞中可以表达出两端为青色荧光蛋白（ECFP）和黄色荧光蛋白（EYFP）的融合蛋白。这两个荧光蛋白通过含有caspase-3蛋白酶作用靶点DEVD的短肽相连,从而可以根据荧光共振能量转移现象检测类caspase-3凋亡蛋白酶的激活,以为实时检测植物PCD过程中关键蛋白酶的激活及其调控奠定基础。     

癫痫发作后神经元凋亡的多重调控机制

癫痫是一种慢性脑部疾病。以脑部神经元过度同步化放电所致的突然、反复和短暂的中枢神经系统功能失常为特征。细胞凋亡（apoptosis）是由基因控制的由细胞内部程序激活而发生的自杀性死亡,它在细胞分化、促进体内正常细胞的更新和调节机体发育等方面都起到重要作用。细胞凋亡是癫痫发作后神经元丢失的重要形式。目前认为,癫痫发作后细胞凋亡分子水平的多重调控主要集中在三个方面：（1）细胞凋亡的相关基因及其调控方面;（2）caspase（cysteine proteinases with specificity for aspartic acid residues,半胱天冬氨酸酶）在细胞凋亡中的作用;（3）线粒体途径在细胞凋亡中的作用。     

氧化应激下p66Shc的调控作用

氧化应激产生的过量活性氧簇（reactive oxygen species,ROS)可通过分子毒性作用或相关信号通路影响相关病理生理学过程. p66Shc是Shc蛋白家族的重要成员之一. 氧化应激下p66Shc能被蛋白激酶Cβ（protein kinase Cβ,PKCβ）、Jun氨基末端激酶（Jun N terminal kinase,JNK）和p53等激活,促进线粒体产生ROS.本文将对氧化应激下p66Shc的作用以及调控其作用的信号转导机制做一综述.     

羊栖菜多糖通过激活Caspase途径诱导Lovo细胞凋亡

研究了羊栖菜多糖（Sargassum Fusiforme Polysaccharides,SFPS）诱导人大肠癌lovo细胞凋亡及凋亡过程中caspase-3、caspase-8、caspase-9的活性变化。MTT法检测SFPS对lovo细胞增殖的抑制率;通过电镜、琼脂糖凝胶电泳、流式细胞术鉴定细胞凋亡;应用Western印迹法测定caspase-3酶原和caspase-9的变化;RToPCR检测caspase-3 mRNA表达;caspase-3,caspase-8、caspase-9活性检测试剂盒观察caspase-3、caspase-8、caspase-9的活性改变。结果显示,SFPS对lovo细胞增殖有显著抑制作用,经形态变化、DNA条带和流式细胞分析,可见明显的细胞凋亡特征。SFPS处理lovo细胞后,发现caspase-3酶原蛋白表达降低,caspase-3 mRNA高表达,并具有剂量和时间的依赖性。而在检测蛋白中,也发现caspase-9被激活进而形成具有活性的片段。另外,caspase的活性检测也进一步发现caspase-3、caspase-9的活性逐步增高。实验结果提示SFPS在体外诱导lovo胞凋亡,这可能是SFPS抑制肿瘤增殖的机制之一,并且是通过激活启动caspase-9,进而激活下游效应caspase-3的级联反应来实现的。     

细胞色素C在apoptin诱导宫颈癌Hela细胞凋亡中的作用

目的研究肿瘤特异性凋亡基因（apoptin）在诱导Hela细胞凋亡中的信号转导机制。方法用含有apoptin基因的真核表达载体瞬间转染体外培养的Hela细胞;采用MTT法检测Hela细胞的凋亡;以比色法检测caspase-8和caspase-3的相对活性;Western blotting检测凋亡细胞中细胞色素C的表达量。结果 MTT法证明ap-optin基因瞬间转染的Hela细胞凋亡率明显高于其他各组（P〈0.01）;caspase-3的活性升高,但caspase-8活性没有明显变化;细胞色素C释放量明显增多。结论 Apoptin基因可能通过促进线粒体释放细胞色素C激活caspase-3,进而诱导Hela细胞凋亡。     

Bax/Bak蛋白在凋亡通路中的调控与激活机制

细胞凋亡是机体维持组织稳态和胚胎发育的重要机制之一,受到多种信号分子的严格调控。促凋亡Bcl-2家族蛋白成员Bax和Bak蛋白在细胞凋亡中扮演着非常重要的角色。在凋亡信号的刺激下,Bax和Bak蛋白被激活并在线粒体上互相凝集成簇,使得线粒体膜的通透性增加,引起凋亡因子的释放,并最终诱导细胞的死亡。本文主要介绍Bax和Bak蛋白在细胞凋亡过程中的调控与激活机制,并详细阐述目前它们在线粒体凋亡通路中的几个激活模型,总结二者在激活线粒体凋亡通路中的作用,为进一步研究线粒体凋亡通路作一铺垫。     

Midkine Inhibits Caspase-Dependent Apoptosis via the Activation of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase and Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase in Cultured Neurons

Midkine (MK) is a new member of the heparin-binding neurotrophic factor family. MK plays important roles in development and carcinogenesis and has several important biological effects, including promotion of neurite extension and neuronal survival. However, the mechanism by which MK exerts its neurotrophic actions on neurons has not been elucidated to date. We have established an apoptosis induction system by serum deprivation in primary neuronal cultures isolated from mouse cerebral cortices. Neuronal apoptosis induced by serum deprivation was accompanied by the activation of caspase-3. MK, when added into the culture medium, inhibited the induction of apoptosis and activation of caspase-3 in a dose-dependent manner. Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and Akt were not activated by serum deprivation, whereas ERK and Akt were rapidly activated by addition of MK. In addition, the trophic actions of MK of suppressing apoptosis and suppressing the activation of caspase-3 were abolished by concomitant treatment with PD98059, a specific inhibitor of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase, and with wort-mannin or LY294002, specific inhibitors of phosphatidyl-inositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase). These PI 3-kinase inhibitors also inhibited the activation of ERK in response to MK, demonstrating a link between ERK and the caspase-3 pathway that is modulated by the PI 3-kinase activation. These results indicate that the ERK cascade plays a central role in MK-mediated neuronal survival via inhibition of caspase-3 activation.     

Insulin-like growth factor receptor-1 and nuclear factor κB are crucial survival signals that regulate caspase-3-mediated lens epithelial cell differentiation initiation

It is now known that the function of the caspase family of proteases is not restricted to effectors of programmed cell death. For example, there is a significant non-apoptotic role for caspase-3 in cell differentiation. Our own studies in the developing lens show that caspase-3 is activated downstream of the canonical mitochondrial death pathway to act as a molecular switch in signaling lens cell differentiation. Importantly, for this function, caspase-3 is activated at levels far below those that induce apoptosis. We now have provided evidence that regulation of caspase-3 for its role in differentiation induction is dependent on the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R) survival-signaling pathway. IGF-1R executed this regulation of caspase-3 by controlling the expression of molecules in the Bcl-2 and inhibitor of apoptosis protein (IAP) families. This effect of IGF-1R was mediated through NFκB, demonstrated here to function as a crucial downstream effector of IGF-1R. Inhibition of expression or activation of NFκB blocked expression of survival proteins in the Bcl-2 and IAP families and removed controls on the activation state of caspase-3. The high level of caspase-3 activation that resulted from inhibiting this IGF-1R/NFκB signaling pathway redirected cell fate from differentiation toward apoptosis. These results provided the first evidence that the IGF-1R/NFκB cell survival signal is a crucial regulator of the level of caspase-3 activation for its non-apoptotic function in signaling cell differentiation.     

E-cadherin-mediated cell contact prevents apoptosis of spontaneously immortalized granulosa cells by regulating Akt kinase activity

The present studies were designed to determine the role that homophilic E-cadherin binding plays in preventing apoptosis of spontaneously immortalized granulosa cells (SIGCs). Although the levels of E-cadherin were similar to serum control levels, the amount of E-cadherin at the plasma membrane was dramatically reduced by 5 h after serum withdrawal. To determine whether disrupting homophilic E-cadherin binding leads to apoptosis, SIGCs were cultured in serum in the presence of either EGTA or an E-cadherin antibody. Treatment with either EGTA, which disrupts all calcium-dependent contacts, or E-cadherin antibody, induced apoptosis. Exposure to EGTA reduced MEK and Akt kinase activity, whereas E-cadherin antibody only attenuated Akt kinase activity. Because Akt kinase controls caspase-3 activity, an important activator of apoptosis, caspase-3 activity was monitored. Caspase-3 activity increased after serum depletion, or EGTA or E-cadherin antibody treatment. Time-series analysis of caspase-3 activity within single cells revealed that during apoptosis cell contact was disrupted then caspase-3 activity was detected. Finally, the caspase inhibitor, Z-VAD-FMK, blocked apoptosis. These data taken together are consistent with the concept that E-cadherin-mediated cell contact, either directly or indirectly, promotes Akt kinase activity, which in turn, inhibits caspase-3 activation and thereby maintains SIGC viability.     

Inhibition of caspase-9 through phosphorylation at Thr 125 by ERK MAPK

Many pro-apoptotic signals activate caspase-9, an initiator protease that activates caspase-3 and downstream caspases to initiate cellular destruction. However, survival signals can impinge on this pathway and suppress apoptosis. Activation of the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is associated with protection of cells from apoptosis and inhibition of caspase-3 activation, although the targets are unknown. Here, we show that the ERK MAPK pathway inhibits caspase-9 activity by direct phosphorylation. In mammalian cell extracts, cytochrome c-induced activation of caspases-9 and -3 requires okadaic-acid-sensitive protein phosphatase activity. The opposing protein kinase activity is overcome by treatment with the broad-specificity kinase inhibitor staurosporine or with inhibitors of MEK1/2. Caspase-9 is phosphorylated at Thr 125, a conserved MAPK consensus site targeted by ERK2 in vitro, in a MEK-dependent manner in cells stimulated with epidermal growth factor (EGF) or 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). Phosphorylation at Thr 125 is sufficient to block caspase-9 processing and subsequent caspase-3 activation. We suggest that phosphorylation and inhibition of caspase-9 by ERK promotes cell survival during development and tissue homeostasis. This mechanism may also contribute to tumorigenesis when the ERK MAPK pathway is constitutively activated.     

Inhibition of p38 kinase mimics survival signal-linked protection against apoptosis in rat cerebellar granule neurons.

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades are thought to be important mediators in the transduction of extracellular signals into cellular responses. The p38 kinase, a member of the MAPK superfamily, is activated by a wide variety of extracellular stimuli and has been implicated in neuronal apoptosis induced by glutamate. In this study we have examined the role of p38 kinase in the potassium deprivation model of apoptosis in rat cerebellar granule neurons (CGN). An increase in p38 kinase activity was observed with a 15-minute potassium deprivation when compared to the basal level. We also found that SB203580 and PD169316, specific p38 kinase inhibitors, significantly attenuated apoptosis in potassium-deprived cells in a dose dependent manner. A decrease in caspase-3 mediated DEVD-MCA, substrate hydrolysis and the appearance of the 120 kDa-spectrin breakdown product in cells treated with SB203580 further suggests that the p38 kinase acts upstream of caspase-3 in the apoptosis cascade. The data provides evidence for an essential role of p38 kinase in mediating apoptotic cell death in CGN and the inhibition of p38 kinase mimics the suppression of apoptosis provided by natural survival signals.     

Involvement of a Rho-ROCK-JNK pathway in arsenic trioxide-induced apoptosis in chronic myelogenous leukemia cells

The apoptotic signals activated by As(2)O(3) in the chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) cell lines K562 and KCL22 were investigated. As(2)O(3) was found to induce apoptosis in these cells via the intrinsic pathway. As(2)O(3) also induced a sustained c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) activation which preceded and was necessary for caspase-9 activation. We established that Rho and its effector, the kinase ROCK, are activated by As(2)O(3). Inhibition of either Rho or ROCK prevented JNK activation and protected against apoptosis. Thus, in CML cells, apoptosis induced by As(2)O(3) is mediated, at least in part, via a Rho-ROCK-JNK axis. These findings define a novel signaling pathway for As(2)O(3)-induced apoptosis.     

Akt kinase activation blocks apoptosis in intestinal epithelial cells by inhibiting caspase-3 after polyamine depletion

Apoptosis plays a critical role in the maintenance of gut mucosal homeostasis and is regulated by numerous factors including polyamines. Although the exact roles of polyamines in apoptotic pathway are still unclear, inhibition of polyamine synthesis promotes the resistance of intestinal epithelial cells to apoptosis. Akt is a serine-threonine kinase that has been established as an important intracellular signaling in regulating cell survival. The current studies test the hypothesis that polyamines are involved in the control of Akt activity in normal intestinal epithelial cells (IEC-6 line) and that activated Akt mediates suppression of apoptosis following polyamine depletion. Depletion of cellular polyamines by alpha-difluoromethylornithine induced levels of phosphorylated Akt and increased Akt kinase activity, although it had no effect on expression of total Akt, pERK, p38, and Bcl-2 proteins. This activated Akt was associated with both decreased levels of active caspase-3 and increased resistance to tumor necrosis factor-alpha/cycloheximide-induced apoptosis. Inactivation of Akt by either treatment with LY294002 or ectopic expression of a dominant negative Akt mutant (DNMAkt) not only enhanced the caspase-3 activation in polyamine-deficient cells but also prevented the increased resistance to tumor necrosis factor-alpha/cycloheximide-induced apoptosis. Phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3, a downstream target of Akt, was also increased in alpha-difluoromethylornithine-treated cells, which was prevented by inactivation of Akt by LY294002 or DNMAkt overexpression. These results indicate that polyamine depletion induces the Akt activation mediating suppression of apoptosis via inhibition of caspase-3 in normal intestinal epithelial cells.     

重金属诱导细胞凋亡的分子机制

重金属诱导的细胞凋亡是一个十分复杂的过程,不同种类的重金属以及同类重金属离子的不同价态所诱导的凋亡效应及其分子机制不尽相同。目前的研究表明,重金属与DNA形成加合物而导致DNA损伤可能是引发细胞凋亡的重要步骤：多种重金属能通过激活内质网、线粒体钙通道,使Ca^2 释放进入细胞质而引发凋亡;重金属还能使细胞中ROS升高,在直接导致DNA损伤的同时,启动与线粒体相关的细胞凋亡信号通路。此外,ROS还能通过MAPKs增强JNK介导的：FasL和Fas表达,最终使caspase-3和caspase-7激活,从而促进凋亡的发生。重金属诱导细胞凋亡还涉及一系列重要基因和蛋白质的参与,包括促进凋亡的Src家族酪氨酸激酶、bax、fas和p53等基因及相关蛋白,抑制凋亡的Sp1锌指转录因子、bcl-2和myc等基因及相关蛋白。部分重金属如镉、锌等对细胞凋亡具有诱导和拮抗双重效应,其中拮抗效应主要是通过与自由钙离子协同进行的,而诱导效应则可能是通过调节caspase-3活性而实现的。     

Protein kinase A regulates caspase-9 activation by Apaf-1 downstream of cytochrome c

The cyclic AMP signal transduction pathway modulates apoptosis in diverse cell types, although the mechanism is poorly understood. A critical component of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway is caspase-9, which is activated by Apaf-1 in the apoptosome, a large complex assembled in response to release of cytochrome c from mitochondria. Caspase-9 cleaves and activates effector caspases, predominantly caspase-3, resulting in the demise of the cell. Here we identified a distinct mechanism by which cyclic AMP regulates this apoptotic pathway through activation of protein kinase A. We show that protein kinase A inhibits activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3 downstream of cytochrome c in Xenopus egg extracts and in a human cell-free system. Protein kinase A directly phosphorylates human caspase-9 at serines 99, 183, and 195. However, mutational analysis demonstrated that phosphorylation at these sites is not required for the inhibitory effect of protein kinase A on caspase-9 activation. Importantly, protein kinase A inhibits cytochrome c-dependent recruitment of procaspase-9 to Apaf-1 but not activation of caspase-9 by a constitutively activated form of Apaf-1. These data indicate that extracellular signals that elevate cyclic AMP and activate protein kinase A may suppress apoptosis by inhibiting apoptosome formation downstream of cytochrome c release from mitochondria.     

Apoptotic signaling in dopamine-induced cell death: the role of oxidative stress, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, cytochrome c and caspases

Oxidative stress generated by dopamine (DA) oxidation could be one of the factors underlying the selective vulnerability of nigral dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's diseases. Here we show that DA induces apoptosis in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells demonstrated by activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3, cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase as well as nuclear condensation. We also show that p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase is activated within 10 min of DA treatment, which precedes the onset of apoptosis because the potent p38 kinase inhibitor SB203580 protects against DA-induced cell death as well as against caspase-9 and caspase-3 activation. In addition, the antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) effectively blocks DA-induced p38 kinase activation, caspase-9 and caspase-3 cleavage and subsequent apoptosis, indicating that DA triggers apoptosis via a signaling pathway that is initiated by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Dopamine exerts its toxicity principally intracellularly as the DA uptake inhibitor, nomifensine significantly reduces DA-induced cell death as well as activation of p38 kinase and caspase-3. Furthermore, DA induces mitochondrial cytochrome c release, which is dependent on p38 kinase activation and precedes the cleavage of caspases. These observations indicate that DA induces apoptosis primarily by generating ROS, p38 kinase activation, cytochrome c release followed by caspase-9 and caspase-3 activation.