Opening of an MPA to fishing: Natural variations in the structure of a coral reef fish assemblage obscure changes due to fishing

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are known to enhance diversity, density and biomass of coral reef fishes and to modify the size and trophic structures of these fish assemblages. Opening to fishing has the opposite effects, but on a much shorter time scale. The present study compares the evolution of the fish assemblages of two adjacent reef zones, both initially MPAs, one of them being afterwards opened to fishing. The study was conducted on Aboré Reef, a New Caledonian barrier reef (SW Pacific) which constituted a 148 km² marine protected area, of which 69 km² are within the lagoon. Two surveys of a coral reef fish assemblage, using underwater visual censuses, were performed, the first one was conducted in July 1993 following 5 years of protection from fishing, the second one was conducted in July 1995; part of the reef having been opened to fishing activity in September 1993. This study examined the effects of two factors on these fish communities: time (1993 vs. 1995) and zone (reefs protected from fishing vs. unprotected reefs); the interaction of these two factors indicating an effect of either protection or opening to fishing. Diversity (species/transect), density and biomass were tested for all species together (377 species), then according to diet, size and commercial use. There was a significant decrease over time of most values in both fished and unfished areas, the decrease being greater in the zone opened to fishing. The magnitude of decrease over time was within the range of known time variations from other studies in New Caledonia and other Pacific locations. However, this decrease was so large that it prevented the detection of effects linked to protection. Only some minor effects could be detected for 16 species with no specific pattern according to diet, size or use. The density and biomass of species of low commercial value were also affected by opening to fishing. Relative changes in diversity could be better detected than relative changes in density or biomass. This study demonstrates that on a short-term basis (2 years), natural variations can be of larger magnitude than changes that may be induced by management options, especially when fishing pressure is not very high.     

Human activities as a driver of spatial variation in the trophic structure of fish communities on Pacific coral reefs

Anthropogenic activities such as land‐use change, pollution and fishing impact the trophic structure of coral reef fishes, which can influence ecosystem health and function. Although these impacts may be ubiquitous, they are not consistent across the tropical Pacific Ocean. Using an extensive database of fish biomass sampled using underwater visual transects on coral reefs, we modelled the impact of human activities on food webs at Pacific‐wide and regional (1,000s–10,000s km) scales. We found significantly lower biomass of sharks and carnivores, where there were higher densities of human populations (hereafter referred to as human activity); however, these patterns were not spatially consistent as there were significant differences in the trophic structures of fishes among biogeographic regions. Additionally, we found significant changes in the benthic structure of reef environments, notably a decline in coral cover where there was more human activity. Direct human impacts were the strongest in the upper part of the food web, where we found that in a majority of the Pacific, the biomass of reef sharks and carnivores were significantly and negatively associated with human activity. Finally, although human‐induced stressors varied in strength and significance throughout the coral reef food web across the Pacific, socioeconomic variables explained more variation in reef fish trophic structure than habitat variables in a majority of the biogeographic regions. Notably, economic development (measured as GDP per capita) did not guarantee healthy reef ecosystems (high coral cover and greater fish biomass). Our results indicate that human activities are significantly shaping patterns of trophic structure of reef fishes in a spatially nonuniform manner across the Pacific Ocean, by altering processes that organize communities in both “top‐down” (fishing of predators) and “bottom‐up” (degradation of benthic communities) contexts.     

Human impacts decouple a fundamental ecological relationship—The positive association between host diversity and parasite diversity

Human impacts on ecosystems can decouple the fundamental ecological relationships that create patterns of diversity in free‐living species. Despite the abundance, ubiquity, and ecological importance of parasites, it is unknown whether the same decoupling effects occur for parasitic species. We investigated the influence of fishing on the relationship between host diversity and parasite diversity for parasites of coral reef fishes on three fished and three unfished islands in the central equatorial Pacific. Fishing was associated with a shallowing of the positive host‐diversity–parasite‐diversity relationship. This occurred primarily through negative impacts of fishing on the presence of complex life‐cycle parasites, which created a biologically impoverished parasite fauna of directly transmitted parasites resilient to changes in host biodiversity. Parasite diversity appears to be decoupled from host diversity by fishing impacts in this coral reef ecosystem, which suggests that such decoupling might also occur for parasites in other ecosystems affected by environmental change.     

Diet and niche breadth variation in the marbled parrotfish,Leptoscarus vaigiensis,among coral reef sites in Kenya

Studies on feeding ecology of fishes are important for understanding ecosystem structure and function. This study tested the hypothesis of diet and niche breath variation in the marbled parrotfish (Leptoscarus vaigiensis) among coral reefs of different protection levels in Kenya. Fish samples were obtained from protected (Malindi and Watamu marine parks), moderately fished (Malindi and Watamu marine reserves) and highly fished (Vipingo and Kanamai) reefs. Total lengths of fish samples were measured and their stomach contents quantified using the point method. Seasonal dietary composition, niche breaths and feeding intensities were compared between the sites using multivariate statistics. Results showed the parrotfish is a predominantly reef macroalgal grazer. Fish from protected sites fed on diverse dietary items compared to those from reserves and highly fished sites. Fish niche breadths differed between sites and seasons. Higher niche breadths occurred in protected sites during the north‐east monsoon, while higher values occurred at fished sites during the south‐east monsoon season. This study, the first of its kind in Kenya and most of the western Indian Ocean, describes feeding in the marbled parrotfish and spatial variation in niche breadth as influenced by fishing pressure, environmental variability and biological interactions.     

Abrolhos bank reef health evaluated by means of water quality, microbial diversity, benthic cover, and fish biomass data

The health of the coral reefs of the Abrolhos Bank (Southwestern Atlantic) was characterized with a holistic approach using measurements of four ecosystem components: (i) inorganic and organic nutrient concentrations, [1] fish biomass, [1] macroalgal and coral cover and (iv) microbial community composition and abundance. The possible benefits of protection from fishing were particularly evaluated by comparing sites with varying levels of protection. Two reefs within the well-enforced no-take area of the National Marine Park of Abrolhos (Parcel dos Abrolhos and California) were compared with two unprotected coastal reefs (Sebasti?o Gomes and Pedra de Leste) and one legally protected but poorly enforced coastal reef (the "paper park" of Timbebas Reef). The fish biomass was lower and the fleshy macroalgal cover was higher in the unprotected reefs compared with the protected areas. The unprotected and protected reefs had similar seawater chemistry. Lower vibrio CFU counts were observed in the fully protected area of California Reef. Metagenome analysis showed that the unprotected reefs had a higher abundance of archaeal and viral sequences and more bacterial pathogens, while the protected reefs had a higher abundance of genes related to photosynthesis. Similar to other reef systems in the world, there was evidence that reductions in the biomass of herbivorous fishes and the consequent increase in macroalgal cover in the Abrolhos Bank may be affecting microbial diversity and abundance. Through the integration of different types of ecological data, the present study showed that protection from fishing may lead to greater reef health. The data presented herein suggest that protected coral reefs have higher microbial diversity, with the most degraded reef (Sebasti?o Gomes) showing a marked reduction in microbial species richness. It is concluded that ecological conditions in unprotected reefs may promote the growth and rapid evolution of opportunistic microbial pathogens.     

Fishing degrades size structure of coral reef fish communities

Fishing pressure on coral reef ecosystems has been frequently linked to reductions of large fishes and reef fish biomass. Associated impacts on overall community structure are, however, less clear. In size‐structured aquatic ecosystems, fishing impacts are commonly quantified using size spectra, which describe the distribution of individual body sizes within a community. We examined the size spectra and biomass of coral reef fish communities at 38 US‐affiliated Pacific islands that ranged in human presence from near pristine to human population centers. Size spectra ‘steepened’ steadily with increasing human population and proximity to market due to a reduction in the relative biomass of large fishes and an increase in the dominance of small fishes. Reef fish biomass was substantially lower on inhabited islands than uninhabited ones, even at inhabited islands with the lowest levels of human presence. We found that on populated islands size spectra exponents decreased (analogous to size spectra steepening) linearly with declining biomass, whereas on uninhabited islands there was no relationship. Size spectra were steeper in regions of low sea surface temperature but were insensitive to variation in other environmental and geomorphic covariates. In contrast, reef fish biomass was highly sensitive to oceanographic conditions, being influenced by both oceanic productivity and sea surface temperature. Our results suggest that community size structure may be a more robust indicator than fish biomass to increasing human presence and that size spectra are reliable indicators of exploitation impacts across regions of different fish community compositions, environmental drivers, and fisheries types. Size‐based approaches that link directly to functional properties of fish communities, and are relatively insensitive to abiotic variation across biogeographic regions, offer great potential for developing our understanding of fishing impacts in coral reef ecosystems.     

Kenyan coral reef lagoon fish: effects of fishing,substrate complexity,and sea urchins

Population density, number of species, diversity, and species-area relationships of fish species in eight common coral reef-associated families were studied in three marine parks receiving total protection from fishing, four sites with unregulated fishing, and one reef which recently received protection from fishing (referred to as a transition reef). Data on coral cover, reef topographic complexity, and sea urchin abundance were collected and correlated with fish abundance and species richness. The most striking result of this survey is a consistent and large reduction in the population density and species richness of 5 families (surgeonfish, triggerfish, butterflyfish, angelfish, and parrotfish). Poor recovery of parrotfish in the transition reef, relative to other fish families, is interpreted as evidence for competitive exclusion of parrotfish by sea urchins. Reef substrate complexity is significantly associated with fish abundance and diversity, but data suggest different responses for protected versus fished reefs, protected reefs having higher species richness and numbers of individuals than unprotected reefs for the same reef complexity. Sea urchin abundance is negatively associated with numbers of fish and fish species but the interrelationship between sea urchins, substrate complexity, coral cover, and management make it difficult to attribute a set percent of variance to each factor-although fishing versus no fishing appears to be the strongest variable in predicting numbers of individuals and species of fish, and their community similarity. Localized species extirpation is evident for many species on fished reefs (for the sampled area of 1.0 ha). Fifty-two of 110 species found on protected reefs were not found on unprotected reefs.     

Coral reef resilience to thermal stress in the Eastern Tropical Pacific

Coral reefs worldwide are threatened by thermal stress caused by climate change. Especially devastating periods of coral loss frequently occur during El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events originating in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP). El Niño‐induced thermal stress is considered the primary threat to ETP coral reefs. An increase in the frequency and intensity of ENSO events predicted in the coming decades threatens a pan‐tropical collapse of coral reefs. During the 1982–1983 El Niño, most reefs in the Galapagos Islands collapsed, and many more in the region were decimated by massive coral bleaching and mortality. However, after repeated thermal stress disturbances, such as those caused by the 1997–1998 El Niño, ETP corals reefs have demonstrated regional persistence and resiliency. Using a 44 year dataset (1970–2014) of live coral cover from the ETP, we assess whether ETP reefs exhibit the same decline as seen globally for other reefs. Also, we compare the ETP live coral cover rate of change with data from the maximum Degree Heating Weeks experienced by these reefs to assess the role of thermal stress on coral reef survival. We find that during the period 1970–2014, ETP coral cover exhibited temporary reductions following major ENSO events, but no overall decline. Further, we find that ETP reef recovery patterns allow coral to persist under these El Niño‐stressed conditions, often recovering from these events in 10–15 years. Accumulative heat stress explains 31% of the overall annual rate of change of living coral cover in the ETP. This suggests that ETP coral reefs have adapted to thermal extremes to date, and may have the ability to adapt to near‐term future climate‐change thermal anomalies. These findings for ETP reef resilience may provide general insights for the future of coral reef survival and recovery elsewhere under intensifying El Niño scenarios.     

Drivers of region-wide declines in architectural complexity on Caribbean reefs

Severe declines in the cover of live hard coral on reefs have been reported worldwide, and in the Caribbean region, the architectural complexity of coral reefs has also declined markedly. While the drivers of coral cover loss are relatively well understood, little is known about the drivers of regional-scale declines in architectural complexity. We have used a dataset of 49 time series reporting reef architectural complexity to explore the effect of hurricanes, coral bleaching and fishing on Caribbean-wide annual rates of change in reef complexity. Hurricane impacts greatly influence reef complexity, with the most rapid rates of decline in complexity occurring at sites impacted during their survey period, and with lower rates of loss occurring at unimpacted sites. Reef architectural complexity did not change significantly following mass bleaching events (in a time frame of <5 years) or positive thermal anomalies. Although the rates of change in architectural complexity were similar in and out of marine protected areas (MPAs), significant declines in complexity were observed inside but not outside of MPAs, possibly because reductions in fishing can lead to increased bioerosion by herbivores within MPAs. Our findings suggest that major drivers of coral mortality, such as coral bleaching, do not influence reef architectural complexity in the short term (<5 years). Instead, direct physical impacts and reef bioerosion appear to be important drivers of the widespread loss of architecturally complex reefs in the Caribbean.     

Long-term change in coral cover and the effectiveness of marine protected areas in the Philippines: a meta-analysis

Although coral declines have been reported from major reefs of the world, region-specific trends still remain unclear, particularly in areas with high diversity such as the Philippines. We assessed the temporal patterns of the magnitude and trajectory of coral cover change in the Philippines using survey data collected from 317 sites. We examined the rate of change in coral cover in relation to time, effects of bleaching and protection against fishing and assessed the efficacy of marine protected areas (MPAs) using meta-analysis. Results showed an overall increase in coral cover in the Philippines from 1981 to 2010. Protection from fishing contributed to the overall increase in the mean annual rate of change as the coral cover significantly increased within MPAs than outside. The significant differences in the rate of coral cover change through time were influenced by chronic anthropogenic stresses, coinciding with the timing of thermal stress and the establishment of MPAs. The rate of change in coral cover was independent of the level of protection and the age and size of MPA.     

Does Herbivorous Fish Protection Really Improve Coral Reef Resilience? A Case Study from New Caledonia (South Pacific)

Parts of coral reefs from New Caledonia (South Pacific) were registered at the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2008. Management strategies aiming at preserving the exceptional ecological value of these reefs in the context of climate change are currently being considered. This study evaluates the appropriateness of an exclusive fishing ban of herbivorous fish as a strategy to enhance coral reef resilience to hurricanes and bleaching in the UNESCO-registered areas of New Caledonia. A two-phase approach was developed: 1) coral, macroalgal, and herbivorous fish communities were examined in four biotopes from 14 reefs submitted to different fishing pressures in New Caledonia, and 2) results from these analyses were challenged in the context of a global synthesis of the relationship between herbivorous fish protection, coral recovery and relative macroalgal development after hurricanes and bleaching. Analyses of New Caledonia data indicated that 1) current fishing pressure only slightly affected herbivorous fish communities in the country, and 2) coral and macroalgal covers remained unrelated, and macroalgal cover was not related to the biomass, density or diversity of macroalgae feeders, whatever the biotope or level of fishing pressure considered. At a global scale, we found no relationship between reef protection status, coral recovery and relative macroalgal development after major climatic events. These results suggest that an exclusive protection of herbivorous fish in New Caledonia is unlikely to improve coral reef resilience to large-scale climatic disturbances, especially in the lightly fished UNESCO-registered areas. More efforts towards the survey and regulation of major chronic stress factors such as mining are rather recommended. In the most heavily fished areas of the country, carnivorous fish and large targeted herbivores may however be monitored as part of a precautionary approach.     

Coral reef cascades and the indirect effects of predator removal by exploitation

Fisheries exploitation provides the opportunity to examine the ecosystem‐scale biodiversity consequences of predator removal. We document predatory reef fish densities, coral‐eating starfish densities and coral reef structure along a 13‐island gradient of subsistence exploitation in Fiji. Along the fishing intensity gradient, predator densities declined by 61% and starfish densities increased by three orders of magnitude. Reef‐building corals and coralline algae declined by 35% and were replaced by non‐reef building taxa (mainly filamentous algae), as a result of starfish predation. Starfish populations exhibited thresholds and Allee‐type dynamics: population growth was negative under light fishing intensities and high predator densities, and positive on islands with higher fishing intensities and low predator densities. These results suggest the depletion of functionally important consumer species by exploitation can indirectly influence coral reef ecosystem structure and function at the scale of islands.     

Reef Fishes at All Trophic Levels Respond Positively to Effective Marine Protected Areas

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) offer a unique opportunity to test the assumption that fishing pressure affects some trophic groups more than others. Removal of larger predators through fishing is often suggested to have positive flow-on effects for some lower trophic groups, in which case protection from fishing should result in suppression of lower trophic groups as predator populations recover. We tested this by assessing differences in the trophic structure of reef fish communities associated with 79 MPAs and open-access sites worldwide, using a standardised quantitative dataset on reef fish community structure. The biomass of all major trophic groups (higher carnivores, benthic carnivores, planktivores and herbivores) was significantly greater (by 40% - 200%) in effective no-take MPAs relative to fished open-access areas. This effect was most pronounced for individuals in large size classes, but with no size class of any trophic group showing signs of depressed biomass in MPAs, as predicted from higher predator abundance. Thus, greater biomass in effective MPAs implies that exploitation on shallow rocky and coral reefs negatively affects biomass of all fish trophic groups and size classes. These direct effects of fishing on trophic structure appear stronger than any top down effects on lower trophic levels that would be imposed by intact predator populations. We propose that exploitation affects fish assemblages at all trophic levels, and that local ecosystem function is generally modified by fishing.     

Measuring the long-term success of small-scale marine protected areas in a Philippine reef fishery

Tropical coral reefs are subject to multiple pressures from both natural and anthropogenic sources. These pressures have caused widespread declines in reef health, resulting in the increased use of spatial management tools such as marine protected areas (MPAs). MPAs have proven generally effective if well designed and enforced, but there are limited long-term studies investigating how the presence of small-scale MPAs affects fish populations and reef communities. Using a 12-year time series, we found that small-scale (10–50 ha) community-managed MPAs along the Danajon Bank of the Philippines preserved average fish biomass within their boundaries over time relative to surrounding fished reefs. Unprotected areas are, however, showing significant long-term biomass decline. MPAs were also found to preserve more key trophic groups and larger-bodied commercially targeted reef fish families. Fish biomass of piscivore, scavenger and invertivore trophic groups inside individual MPAs is, however, still declining at a similar rate as outside. Surprisingly, long-term benthic cover and growth form composition were not significantly affected overall by MPA presence, despite the sporadic use of highly destructive dynamite fishing in this region. Coral cover has remained historically low (21–28%) throughout the study, following widespread bleaching mortality. While management tempered overall abundance declines, we found that irrespective of MPA presence, there was a generalised decline of both large- and small-bodied fish size groups across the study region, most steeply within the 20–30 cm length fish, and a shift towards proportionally higher abundances of small (5–10 cm) fish. This indicates a combination of over-exploitation, inadequate MPA size and coverage for larger fish, and the lingering effects of the 1998 bleaching event. Generalised shifts in body size and trophic structure reported here could lead to future reductions in fishery productivity and stability and will be further exacerbated unless broader fishery regulations and enforcement is instated.

     

Factors shaping the range-size frequency distribution of the endemic fish fauna of the Tropical Eastern Pacific

Aim To assess the effect of habitat fragmentation and isolation in determining the range‐size frequency distribution (RFD) of the shorefish fauna endemic to a discrete biogeographical region. Location The Tropical Eastern Pacific (TEP). Methods Habitat isolation represents the separation between oceanic islands and the continental shore of the TEP and habitat fragmentation the degree of spatial continuity of habitats (i.e. reefs, soft bottom, nearshore waters) along the continental coast of the TEP. The effects of habitat isolation and fragmentation were quantified by comparing the RFDs of (1) the species found on oceanic islands vs. the continental shore, and (2) species on the continental shore that use different habitat types. Results The RFD of the entire TEP fauna was bimodal, with peaks at both small‐ and large‐range ends of the spectrum. The small‐range peak was due almost entirely to island species and the large‐range peak due mainly to species found in both the continental shore and oceanic islands. RFDs varied among species using different habitats on the continental shore: reef‐fishes had a right‐skewed RFD, soft‐bottom species a flat RFD, and coastal‐pelagic fishes a left‐skewed RFD. Main conclusions Variation in dispersal capabilities associated with habitat isolation and fragmentation in the TEP appears to be the main mechanism contributing to differences among RFD structure, although variation in tolerances arising from the dynamic regional environment may contribute to some patterns. Because diversity patterns are strongly affected by RFD structure, it is now evident that the insular and continental components of a fauna should be treated separately when analysing such patterns. Furthermore, contrasts in RFD structure among species using different habitats demonstrate that a full understanding of the causes of diversity patterns requires analyses of complete regional faunas in relation to regional geography.     

Differences in recreationally targeted fishes between protected and fished areas of a coral reef marine park

Many comparisons have been made between sanctuary (no-fishing) and fished areas, where fishing pressure is exerted by artisanal or commercial fishers, but few have examined the effect of recreational fishing on fish assemblages in coral reef habitats. In this study, we compared assemblages of targeted fish from coral reef habitats in sanctuary (no-fishing) and recreationally fished zones of a marine protected area (MPA). Surface visual census (SVC) transects were conducted two times, at three regions, to compare the composition of predatory fish assemblages and the abundance, biomass, and size of the most commonly targeted fish. Baited remote underwater video (BRUV) was used to make relative counts of fish between zones. We also measured benthic cover and rugosity, which may influence fish assemblages. Analysis of similarity (ANOSIM) revealed significant differences in the composition of fish families/genera targeted by fishers (Lethrinidae, Lutjanidae, Haemulidae, Serranidae, and the genus Choerodon of the family Labridae) in terms of biomass (P<0.01) and abundance (P<0.05). The most consistent trends were recorded for biomass and this was supported by clustering of replicates in nonmetric multidimensional scaling (nMDS) ordinations. Similarity percentages (SIMPER) analysis indicated that the family Lethrinidae accounted for 73% (as abundance), and up to 69% (as biomass), of the dissimilarity between zones. Three-factor ANOVA highlighted significantly greater biomass, size, and abundance of legal-sized lethrinids (the most targeted family in the region) in sanctuary zones, but no differences in other families/genera. Results of BRUV supported SVC with greater relative counts of lethrinids (P<0.01) in sanctuaries, but no significant differences for other families. Cover of Acropora coral and hard substrate differed between zones at some regions but differences were inconsistent. There were no significant differences in algal cover or rugosity between zones. Given the inconsistency in benthic cover, the similarity of rugosity between zones, the consistently greater biomass of lethrinids in sanctuaries, and the abundance of large lethrinids in sanctuaries, the cessation of fishing in sanctuary zones appears responsible for observed differences in the populations of these fish. These results demonstrate that recreational fishing pressure may be sufficient to deplete fish populations below that of adjacent protected areas and that the effect of recreational fishing in coral reef habitats may be greater than previously thought.     

A clear human footprint in the coral reefs of the Caribbean

The recent degradation of coral reefs worldwide is increasingly well documented, yet the underlying causes remain debated. In this study, we used a large-scale database on the status of coral reef communities in the Caribbean and analysed it in combination with a comprehensive set of socioeconomic and environmental databases to decouple confounding factors and identify the drivers of change in coral reef communities. Our results indicated that human activities related to agricultural land use, coastal development, overfishing and climate change had created independent and overwhelming responses in fishes, corals and macroalgae. While the effective implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs) increased the biomass of fish populations, coral reef builders and macroalgae followed patterns of change independent of MPAs. However, we also found significant ecological links among all these groups of organisms suggesting that the long-term stability of coral reefs as a whole requires a holistic and regional approach to the control of human-related stressors in addition to the improvement and establishment of new MPAs.     

Indirect consequences of fishing: reduction of coralline algae suppresses juvenile coral abundance

Removing predatory fishes has effects that cascade through ecosystems via interactions between species and functional groups. In Kenyan reef lagoons, fishing-induced trophic cascades produce sea urchin-dominated grazing communities that greatly reduce the overall cover of crustose coralline algae (CCA). Certain species of CCA enhance coral recruitment by chemically inducing coral settlement. If sea urchin grazing reduces cover of settlement-inducing CCA, coral recruitment and hence juvenile coral abundance may also decline on fished reefs. To determine whether fishing-induced changes in CCA influence coral recruitment and abundance, we compared (1) CCA taxonomic compositions and (2) taxon-specific associations between CCA and juvenile corals under three fisheries management systems: closed, gear-restricted, and open-access. On fished reefs (gear-restricted and open-access), abundances of two species of settlement-inducing CCA, Hydrolithon reinboldii and H. onkodes, were half those on closed reefs. On both closed and fished reefs, juveniles of four common coral families (Poritidae, Pocilloporidae, Agariciidae, and Faviidae) were more abundant on Hydrolithon than on any other settlement substrate. Coral densities were positively correlated with Hydrolithon spp. cover and were significantly lower on fished than on closed reefs, suggesting that fishing indirectly reduces coral recruitment or juvenile success over large spatial scales via reduction in settlement-inducing CCA. Therefore, managing reefs for higher cover of settlement-inducing CCA may enhance coral recruitment or juvenile survival and help to maintain the ecological and structural stability of reefs.     

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: an assessment of coral reef fishes in the US Pacific Islands

Widespread declines among many coral reef fisheries have led scientists and managers to become increasingly concerned over the extinction risk facing some species. To aid in assessing the extinction risks facing coral reef fishes, large-scale censuses of the abundance and distribution of individual species are critically important. We use fisheries-independent data collected as part of the NOAA Pacific Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program from 2000 to 2009 to describe the range and density across the US Pacific of coral reef fishes included on The International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) 2011 Red List of Threatened Species. Forty-five species, including sharks, rays, groupers, humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus), and bumphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum), included on the IUCN List, were recorded in the US Pacific Islands. Most species were generally rare in the US Pacific with the exception of a few species, principally small groupers and reef sharks. The greatest diversity and densities of IUCN-listed fishes were recorded at remote and uninhabited islands of the Pacific Remote Island Areas; in general, lower densities were observed at reefs of inhabited islands. Our findings complement IUCN assessment efforts, emphasize the efficacy of large-scale assessment and monitoring efforts in providing quantitative data on reef fish assemblages, and highlight the importance of protecting populations at remote and uninhabited islands where some species included on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species can be observed in abundance.     

Human,Oceanographic and Habitat Drivers of Central and Western Pacific Coral Reef Fish Assemblages

Coral reefs around US- and US-affiliated Pacific islands and atolls span wide oceanographic gradients and levels of human impact. Here we examine the relative influence of these factors on coral reef fish biomass, using data from a consistent large-scale ecosystem monitoring program conducted by scientific divers over the course of >2,000 hours of underwater observation at 1,934 sites, across ~40 islands and atolls. Consistent with previous smaller-scale studies, our results show sharp declines in reef fish biomass at relatively low human population density, followed by more gradual declines as human population density increased further. Adjusting for other factors, the highest levels of oceanic productivity among our study locations were associated with more than double the biomass of reef fishes (including ~4 times the biomass of planktivores and piscivores) compared to islands with lowest oceanic productivity. Our results emphasize that coral reef areas do not all have equal ability to sustain large reef fish stocks, and that what is natural varies significantly amongst locations. Comparisons of biomass estimates derived from visual surveys with predicted biomass in the absence of humans indicated that total reef fish biomass was depleted by 61% to 69% at populated islands in the Mariana Archipelago; by 20% to 78% in the Main Hawaiian islands; and by 21% to 56% in American Samoa.