256 层CT 冠状动脉造影低剂量技术联合应用的临床价值

目的:探讨前瞻性心电门控扫描、低管电压结合迭代重建算法在256层螺旋CT冠脉造影中的应用价值。方法:回顾性分析行256层螺旋CT冠状动脉成像(CCTA)、体质量指数正常的受检者130例。常规剂量组(A组)50例:应用回顾性心电门控扫描模式,管电压120 kv;低剂量组(B组)80例,心率70次/分者50例,心率≧70次/分者30例:应用前瞻性心电门控扫描模式,管电压100 kv。B组患者原始数据分别应用迭代算法(Idose3)重建及标准滤波反投影法(FBP)重建。比较A、B两组的有效辐射剂量,对各组客观图像质量及主观图像质量进行统计学分析。结果:A、B两组平均有效辐射剂量分别为(15.34±3.89)、(1.43±0.12)m Sv。B组患者应用迭代重建图像噪声降低,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。应用FBP重建,B组图像噪声高于A组,两者比较差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。各组主观图像质量评分差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:前瞻性心电门控低千伏扫描模式联合迭代重建算法在提供满足诊断的冠状动脉CTA图像的同时,辐射剂量降幅高达90.6%。心率70次/分-85次/分的患者也可行256层CT前门控扫描,降低管电压造成的图像噪声增加可以通过迭代重建弥补。     

SnapShot Assist方案和参数优化下的冠状动脉CT血管成像

目的:探讨运用SnapShot Assist软件不同方案和参数优化下,对冠状动脉CT血管成像(Coronary Computed Tomographic Angiography,CCTA)的图像质量和辐射剂量的影响。方法:98例患者采用SnapShot Assist进行自动分组行CCTA:A组(n=41,e BMI23)80 k Vp/700 m A成像,B组(n=38,23≤e BMI28)100 k Vp/650 m A成像和C组(n=19,e BMI≥28)120 k Vp/650 m A成像。每一组又分为前瞻性门控轴向扫描模式(心率≤65次/分钟)和回顾性门控螺旋扫描模式(心率65次/分钟)两个亚组。30例未采用SnapShot Assist软件的常规回顾性心电门控螺旋扫描模式CCTA患者为对照组。分析比较各组图像质量主观评分、对比噪声比(Contrast-to-Noise Ratio,CNR)、信噪比(Signal-to-Noise Ratio,SNR)和胸壁皮下脂肪的密度标准差(Standard Deviation,SD)、CT容积剂量指数(volume CT Dose Index,CTDIvol)和有效辐射剂量(Effective Dose,ED)。结果:(1)A、B和C组内前瞻性心电门控扫描模式图像质量主观评分均值高于回顾性心电门控扫描模式,但差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。实验组图像质量评分与对照组无明显差异(P0.05)。(2)与对照组相比,A、B和C组CTDIvol、ED均显著降低(P0.05),其中辐射剂量平均下降63%。A、B和C组中,前瞻性心电门控轴向扫描均比回顾性心电门控螺旋扫描的CTDIvol、ED明显降低(P0.05)。结论:SnapShot Assist对患者进行个性化方案选择下的CCTA,在不降低图像质量的同时有效减少了辐射剂量。     

大鼠活体胸部扫描中减少图像呼吸心跳伪影序列方案的探讨

目的开发256层螺旋CT大鼠活体胸部CT扫描中减少图像呼吸、心跳伪影的序列。方法采用飞利浦Brilliance-iCT对10只SD大鼠进行胸部CT成像。每只大鼠均采用A、B两种扫描方式, A方式为常规胸部CT扫描序列,为非心电门控螺旋扫描模式,B方式为非心电门控轴扫模式。两组均在120 kV条件下扫描,扫描长度为8 cm。对所得CT数据进行横断位与冠状位肺窗与软组织窗重建,观察图像并进行测量,比较两组图像的平均CT值、图像噪声、信噪比(SNR)、和主观图像质量评分的差异,并对不同观察者间主观图像质量评分的一致性进行检验。结果分析10例大鼠胸部CT扫描数据。A、B两种扫描序列的剂量长度乘积(dose length product,DLP)值分别为144.7 mGy/cm与72.2 mGy/cm。两组间肺组织CT值与肝组织CT值差异无显著性(t值分别为-0.205、0.545,P0.05),两组图像噪声差异无显著性(t值为-0.865,P0.05),两组图像肺组织的SNR差异无显著性(t值为0.903,P0.05),但肝组织的SNR值B组高于A组,差异有显著性(t值为-2.885,P0.05)。两位医师的评分结果的相关系数为0.763,诊断结果一致性良好。A、B两种扫描方式的图像主观质量评分为(2.5±0.53)分、(4.3±0.67)分,差异有显著性(χ~2值为14.76,P0.05)。结论大鼠胸部CT扫描采用非心电门控轴扫模式可获得与胸部常规CT扫描(非心电门控螺旋扫描模式)大致相当的CT值与噪声、信噪比,但采用非心电门控轴扫模式可以有效减少大鼠胸部图像的呼吸心跳伪影,降低辐射剂量,提高图像质量,提高观察者的诊断信心。     

自由呼吸状态下冠状动脉CT血管成像的可行性研究

目的:探讨自由呼吸状态下冠状动脉CT血管成像(Coronary CT Angiography, CCTA)的可行性。方法:收集187例疑似冠心病患者,所有患者均行CCTA检查,其中108例采用传统屏气法扫描,79例采用自由呼吸法扫描。扫描采用前门控预估法(Auto Gating)测得冠脉扫描期相,设置扫描范围和参数(准直宽度256×0.625、224×0.625、192×0.625,球管转速0.28 s,kV100,智能管电流,噪声指数25)。对比剂浓度为370 mg I/m L,注药量为0.86 m L/kg,注药时间维持12 s。由2名高年资放射科医师对冠状动脉图像采用5分法评分。测量升主动脉根部(冠状动脉左主干开口水平)和胸壁肌肉的CT值及标准差,计算图像的信噪比和对比噪声比。结果:自由呼吸状态下右冠状动脉(Right coronary artery, RCA)、左前降支(Left ascending artery, LAD)、左旋支(Left circumflex artery, LCx)的优良血管率分别为46.5%(87/187)、51.9%(97/187)及48.7%(91/187);屏气状态下RCA、LAD、LCx的优良血管率分别为32.6%(61/187)、36.4%(68/187)及36.9%(69/187),两组之间无统计学差异(Fisher值分别为6.94、1.54、0.81,P均0.05)。采用自由呼吸和屏气状态下CCTA检查的主动脉CT值、噪声、SNR和CNR均无统计学差异(P均0.05)。结论:采用超宽探测器CT,自由呼吸法CCTA可完全取代传统屏气法CCTA检查,从而降低受检者的配合难度,提高工作效率。     

多层螺旋CT Flash Spiral模式老年冠状动脉成像的图像质量及影响因素分析

目的:探讨老年多层螺旋CT Flash Spiral模式和Spiral模式的冠状动脉动脉成像质量及其影响因素。方法:选择我院2010年1月~2012年12月行多层螺旋CT冠状动脉成像老年患者186例,根据心率和心律将患者分为两组:A组98例行Flash Spiral模式扫描;B组88例行Spiral模式扫描,对两组扫描的冠状动脉分别做图像后处理。比较两组患者的一般情况、图像质量评分及辐射剂量,并统计分析心率变异性对图像质量的影响。结果:两组患者在年龄、性别构成、体重指数(BMI)、钙化积分方面差异无统计学意义(均P0.05);在心率、心率变异性方面,A组明显低于B组,差异有统计学意义(均P0.05);两组患者图像质量评分、图像噪声及对比信噪比(CNR)相比较,差异均无统计学意义(均P0.05);不可诊断节段基于血管节段评价A组和B组分别为1.98%和2.21%,基于患者评价分别为8.16%和6.82%,差异无统计学意义(均P0.05);A组扫描时间、容积CT剂量指数(CTDIvol)、剂量长度乘积(DLP)、单位有效剂量(ED)小于B组,差异有统计学意义(均P0.05);心率变异性10次/min患者冠状动脉图像质量明显低于心率变异性5~10次/min和≤5次/min(P0.05)。结论:采用多层螺旋CT Flash Spiral模式扫描老年冠状动脉成像质量与Spiral模式接近,但有效辐射剂量明显减少。心率变异性是影响老年患者Flash Spiral模式扫描图像质量的重要因素。     

能谱CT在去除腰椎术后金属伪影中的应用进展

多层计算机断层扫描(Multi-slice computed tomography,MSCT)具有时间及空间分辨率高的特点已经被广泛应用于脊柱术后评价,然而,因为术中植入金属植入物,CT图像由于其成像原理的限制,其图像质量受到金属植入物的严重影响,金属伪影大多来源于量子噪声、散射线和射束硬化效应,降低图像的对比度,使细微解剖结构显示不清,从而使得感兴趣区域的检测能力降低,其图像质量明显下降,甚至使临床医师做出错误的诊断,因此,为了做出更准确的腰椎术后并发症诊断和术后评估,使金属伪影最小化成为关键。能谱CT及其扫描及重建技术可以有效的去除腰椎术后产生的金属伪影,改善图像质量,本文能谱CT在腰椎术后金属伪影去除方面的应用进行综述。     

宝石能谱CT GSI成像和常规成像在上腹部应用价值的对比研究

目的:探讨宝石能谱CT GSI扫描模式在上腹部检查中降低辐射剂量和优化图像质量的可行性及应用价值。方法:选择2016年9月至2016年12月期间我院40例拟行上腹部三期增强的患者,根据扫描模式将患者分为A组和B组,每组20例。A组患者采用宝石能谱CT常规扫描模式行螺旋扫描,管电压120 Kvp及自动毫安管电流,确定NI值为10。B组患者采用GSI模式行三期增强扫描收集门脉期图像。回顾性自适应统计迭代重建(ASIR)70kev单能量图像,应用ASIR Review工具收集0到100%ASIR的CT值、噪声值,计算图像信号噪声比(SNR)。记录各组剂量报告中CT剂量容积指数(CTDI vol)及剂量长度乘积(DLP),并计算有效剂量(ED),采用图像质量主观评分对图像进行评价。结果:B组CT值、噪声值及SNR均高于A组(P0.05),B组CTDIvol、DLP和ED均显著低于A组(P0.05);随着ASIR升高,SNR升高,但是图像质量主观评分先升高后降低。当ASIR为50%时,图像质量最高,不同ASIR的CT值、噪声值之间的差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:宝石能谱CT GSI扫描模式的效果明显优于螺旋扫描,同时在降低图像噪声的前提下选择50%ASIR,可保障图像质量。     

256层螺旋CT前瞻性心电门控冠状动脉成像的临床应用价值及其对比剂浓度研究

目的:探讨256层螺旋CT前瞻性心电门控冠状动脉成像的临床应用价值及不同浓度对比剂对其成像质量、碘用量以及有效辐射剂量的影响。方法:对120例疑似冠心病患者行256层螺旋CT成像扫描,将患者随机分为前瞻性心电门控组和回顾性心电门控组;出院前再将前瞻性心电门控组患者按数表法随机分为低浓度对比剂组、中浓度对比剂组和高浓度对比剂组。比较各组成像质量、碘用量、有效辐射剂量。结果:前瞻性心电门控组与回顾性心电门控组图像质量主观评分分布、可评价节段率、优良率、有效碘用量、信噪比(SNR)、载噪比(CNR)、主动脉CT值(CT主)、主动脉噪声值(SD主)比较无统计学差异(P0.05)。前瞻性心电门控组有效辐射剂量显著低于回顾性心电门控组(P0.05)。高浓度对比剂组可评价节段率、优良率、有效碘用量、SNR、CNR、CT主显著高于低浓度对比剂组和中浓度对比剂组(P0.05),中浓度对比剂组CNR显著高于低浓度对比剂组(P0.05)。结论:前瞻性心电门控技术用于冠心病诊断的图像质量与回顾性心电门控技术无明显差异,但是前瞻性心电门控技术辐射剂量更低。前瞻性心电门控使用低浓度对比剂可以获得满足临床诊断需要的图像质量,且碘用量更少。     

能谱CT单能量成像联合自适应迭代重建技术对头颈部CT血管成像质量影响及应用价值研究

摘要 目的：探讨能谱CT单能量成像联合自适应迭代重建（ASiR）技术对头颈部CT血管成像（CTA）质量影响及应用价值研究。方法：收集2019年1月至2019年12月于本院接受头颈部CTA的120例患者的影像及临床资料;随机分为A组、B组及C组,每组40例,A组进行能谱CT（60keV）+ASiR（40%）,B组进行CT（60keV）+滤波反投影（FBP）,C组进行常规CT扫描+FBP。比较三组间动脉期右侧颈内动脉C₇段CT值、图像噪声值、信噪比、对比噪声比及图像质量主观评分,记录三种处理方法辐射剂量。结果：三组间右侧颈内动脉C₇段CT值、背景噪声（SD）、信噪比（SNR）、对比噪声比（CNR）及主观评分比较差异均有统计学意义（P<0.05）;进一步两两比较发现,右侧颈内动脉C₇段CT值A组>B组>C组,其中A组与B组间差异无统计学意义（P>0.05）,A组与C组、B组与C组间差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）;图像SD为A组0.05）;SNR与CNR均为A组>B组>C组,且A组与B组、A组与C组、B组与C组间两参数差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）;主观评分A组>B组>C组,且A组与B组、A组与C组、B组与C组间差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。三组间容积CT剂量指数（CTDLvol）、总剂量长度乘积（DLP）、有效剂量（ED）比较差异均有统计学意义（P<0.05）;进一步两两比较发现,CTDLvol、DLP、ED均为A组0.05）,但A组与C组、B组与C组间各剂量参数间差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。结论：能谱CT单能量成像联合ASiR可明显提高头颈部CTA图像质量且降低患者辐射剂量,推荐临床使用60keV联合40%ASiR图像。     

256排Revolution多参数调节下低剂量心脏冠脉成像应用

目的:研究256排Revolution多参数调节下低剂量扫描心脏冠脉成像(Coronary computed tomographic angiography,CCTA)的应用。方法:回顾性分析2016年3月15日至5月15日间在我院256排CT行CCTA的患者,分为心率稳定试验组(n=54例)和心率不稳定试验组(n=41例),同时选取在我院64排VCT行CCTA的患者为对照组(n=116例),对三组CCTA图像质量行主观和客观评估,比较有效辐射剂量的差异。结果:256排CT检查成功率和图像质量的主观评价均优于对照组(P0.05);信噪比(SNR)、对比噪声比(CNR)与对照组差异无统计学意义(P0.05);但有效辐射剂量明显降低(P0.05)。结论:256排CT多参数调节下检查冠脉在保证图像质量下可有效降低辐射剂量。     

Improvement of Image Quality and Diagnostic Performance by an Innovative Motion-Correction Algorithm for Prospectively ECG Triggered Coronary CT Angiography

Objective

To investigate the effect of a novel motion-correction algorithm (Snap-short Freeze, SSF) on image quality and diagnostic accuracy in patients undergoing prospectively ECG-triggered CCTA without administering rate-lowering medications.

Materials and Methods

Forty-six consecutive patients suspected of CAD prospectively underwent CCTA using prospective ECG-triggering without rate control and invasive coronary angiography (ICA). Image quality, interpretability, and diagnostic performance of SSF were compared with conventional multisegment reconstruction without SSF, using ICA as the reference standard.

Results

All subjects (35 men, 57.6 ± 8.9 years) successfully underwent ICA and CCTA. Mean heart rate was 68.8±8.4 (range: 50–88 beats/min) beats/min without rate controlling medications during CT scanning. Overall median image quality score (graded 1–4) was significantly increased from 3.0 to 4.0 by the new algorithm in comparison to conventional reconstruction. Overall interpretability was significantly improved, with a significant reduction in the number of non-diagnostic segments (690 of 694, 99.4% vs 659 of 694, 94.9%; P<0.001). However, only the right coronary artery (RCA) showed a statistically significant difference (45 of 46, 97.8% vs 35 of 46, 76.1%; P = 0.004) on a per-vessel basis in this regard. Diagnostic accuracy for detecting ≥50% stenosis was improved using the motion-correction algorithm on per-vessel [96.2% (177/184) vs 87.0% (160/184); P = 0.002] and per-segment [96.1% (667/694) vs 86.6% (601/694); P <0.001] levels, but there was not a statistically significant improvement on a per-patient level [97.8 (45/46) vs 89.1 (41/46); P = 0.203]. By artery analysis, diagnostic accuracy was improved only for the RCA [97.8% (45/46) vs 78.3% (36/46); P = 0.007].

Conclusion

The intracycle motion correction algorithm significantly improved image quality and diagnostic interpretability in patients undergoing CCTA with prospective ECG triggering and no rate control.     

Selection of optimal cardiac phases for ECG-triggered coronary CT angiography in pediatrics

PurposeThe use of coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) in children remains limited by patient’s irradiation, and motion artefacts impairing image quality. Triggering the acquisition at the appropriate moment, and acquiring only necessary components of the cardiac cycle could overcome these limitations. Yet, optimal cardiac intervals to perform CCTA as a function of heart rate (HR) have not yet been addressed in pediatrics.MethodsFifty children with coronary artery anomalies underwent a CCTA on a wide-coverage single-beat CT scanner. Multiple phases from 25% to 85% of the R-R interval were acquired and reconstructed with 10% increments. Two radiologists independently assessed motion artifacts on each cardiac phase using a 4-point semi-quantitative scale.ResultsAt patient level, the best phase for acquisition was found in diastole for patients with HR ≤ 75 bpm and in systole for patients with HR > 85 bpm. At coronary segments and structures level, median optimal phases were reported at 70%, 80%, 47%, 50%, and 54% of the R-R interval for patients with HR ≤ 60, 61–75, 86–100, 101–130, and >130 bpm respectively. For patients with HR between 76 and 85 bpm, no clear trend could be observed. Optimal acquisition durations represented 10% (2 phases), 20% (3 phases), 50% (multiphase), 20% (3 phases), and 10% (2 phases) of the R-R interval for patients with HR ≤ 60, 61–75, 76–100, 101–130, and >130 bpm, respectively.ConclusionsOptimal positioning and duration of CCTA acquisition intervals were investigated as a function of children’s HR, to reduce motion artifacts and patient’s irradiation.     

Measurement of coronary bifurcation angle with coronary CT angiography: A phantom study

PurposeAccurate determination of the bifurcation angle and correlation with plaque buildup may lead to the prediction of coronary artery disease (CAD). This work evaluates two techniques to measure bifurcation angles in 3D space using coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA).Materials and MethodsNine phantoms were fabricated with different bifurcation angles ranging from 55.3° to 134.5°. General X-ray and CCTA were employed to acquire 2D and 3D images of the bifurcation phantoms, respectively. Multiplanar reformation (MPR) and volume rendering technique (VRT) were used to measure the bifurcation angle between the left anterior descending (LAD) and left circumflex arteries (LCx). The measured angles were compared with the true values to determine the accuracy of each measurement technique. Inter-observer variability was evaluated. The two techniques were further applied on 50 clinical CCTA cases to verify its clinical value.ResultsIn the phantom setting, the mean absolute differences calculated between the true and measured angles by MPR and VRT were 2.4° ± 2.2° and 3.8° ± 2.9°, respectively. Strong correlation was found between the true and measured bifurcation angles. Furthermore, no significant differences were found between the bifurcation angles measured using either technique. In clinical settings, large difference of 12.0° ± 10.6° was found between the two techniques.ConclusionIn the phantom setting, both techniques demonstrated a significant correlation to the true bifurcation angle. Despite the lack of agreement of the two techniques in the clinical context, our findings in phantoms suggest that MPR should be preferred to VRT for the measurement of coronary bifurcation angle by CCTA.     

Low-dose paediatric cardiac and thoracic computed tomography with prospective triggering: Is it possible at any heart rate?

ObjectiveTo demonstrate that the use of step-and-shoot (SAS) mode in paediatric cardiac CT angiography (CCTA) is possible at heart rates (HR) greater than 65 bpm, allowing low-dose acquisition with single-source 64-slices CT.MethodsWe retrospectively included 125 paediatric patients (0–6 years). CCTA was performed with SAS at diastolic phase in 31 patients (group D, HR < 65 bpm), at systolic phase in 45 patients (group S, HR ≥ 65 bpm) and with non-gated mode in 49 patients (group NG). Effective dose (ED) and image quality using a 3-grade scoring scale (1, excellent; 2, moderate; 3, insufficient) of group S were compared with group D for coronary examinations and group NG for entire thorax vascular anatomy.ResultsFor coronary indications, median ED was 0.6 mSv in group D versus 0.9 mSv in group S (p < 0.01). For whole thorax indications, median ED was 2.7 mSv in group NG versus 1.1 mSv in group S (p < 0.001). The mean image quality score was (1.4 ± 0.6) points in group D, (1.4 ± 0.7) in group S for coronary indications (p = 0.9), (1.3 ± 0.6) in group S for whole thorax indications and (2.0 ± 0.0) in group NG (p < 0.001).ConclusionSAS mode is feasible in children with HR greater than 65 bpm allowing low-dose CCTA. It provided comparable image quality in systole, compared to diastole. SAS at the systolic phase provided better image quality with less radiation dose compared to non-gated scans for whole thorax examinations.     

Hemodynamic impacts of various types of stenosis in the left coronary artery bifurcation: A patient-specific analysis

This study investigates the hemodynamic changes to various types of coronary stenosis in the left coronary artery bifurcation, based on a patient-specific analysis. Twenty two patients with left coronary artery disease were included in this study. All stenoses involving the left coronary artery bifurcation were classified into four types, according to their locations: A) left circumflex (LCx) and left anterior descending (LAD), B) LCx only, C) left main stem only, and D) LAD only. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was performed to analyze the flow and wall shear stress (WSS) changes in all reconstructed left coronary geometries. Our results showed that the flow velocity and WSS were significantly increased at stenotic locations. High WSS was found at >70% lumen stenosis, which ranged from 2.5 Pa to 3.5 Pa. This study demonstrates that in patients with more than 50% stenosis in the left coronary artery bifurcation, WSS plays an important role in providing information about the extent of coronary atherosclerosis in the left coronary artery branch.     

64层螺旋CTA容积重建结合轴位图像对明确颈部包块与血管关系的价值

目的:探讨64层螺旋CT血管成像(CTA)对明确颈部包块与周围血管关系的价值。方法:采用GE LightSpeed6 4层螺旋CT对25例颈部包块患者行颈部平扫及增强扫描,将获得的原始数据传入ADW4.3后处理工作站,血管重建技术选择容积重建(VR),诊断采用VR与轴位图像相结合的方式。结果:淋巴性病变10例,包括淋巴结结核2例、淋巴结转移4例、淋巴瘤4例,非淋巴性病变15例,包括淋巴管瘤1例、腮腺混合瘤2例、甲状腺癌4例、甲状腺腺瘤3例、孤立性纤维瘤1例、蔓状血管瘤2例、表皮样囊肿1例、咽旁脓肿1例。包块位于气管两侧6例,左侧15例,右侧4例;位于甲状腺内7例,腮腺内2例,颈动脉间隙11例,1例位于咽旁,其余4例位于颈部表浅组织内;颈部包块致毗邻血管移位、变形9例,其中动脉7例、静脉2例;颈部包块侵袭及包绕血管3例,包括动脉1例、静脉2例,其中1例静脉内血栓形成;颈部包块与血管关系密切2例;颈动脉发出分支供应颈部包块1例;其余10例与颈部血管无明显关系。结论:64层螺旋CTA容积重建结合轴位图像,可较准确地明确颈部包块与血管之间的关系。     

Dynamics of human coronary arterial motion and its potential role in coronary atherogenesis

Mechanical forces have been widely recognized to play an important role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Since coronary arterial motion modulates both vessel wall mechanics and fluid dynamics, it is hypothesized that certain motion patterns might be atherogenic by generating adverse wall mechanical forces or fluid dynamic environments. To characterize the dynamics of coronary arterial motion and explore its implications in atherogenesis, a system was developed to track the motion of coronary arteries in vivo, and employed to quantify the dynamics of four right coronary arteries (RCA) and eight left anterior descending (LAD) coronary arteries. The analysis shows that: (a) The motion parameters vary among individuals, with coefficients of variation ranging from 0.25 to 0.59 for axially and temporally averaged values of the parameters; (b) the motion parameters of individual vessels vary widely along the vessel axis, with coefficients of variation as high as 2.28; (c) the LAD exhibits a greater axial variability in torsion, a measure of curve "helicity," than the RCA; (d) in comparison with the RCA, the LAD experiences less displacement (p = 0.009), but higher torsion (p = 0.03). These results suggest that: (i) the variability of certain motion parameters, particularly those that exhibit large axial variations, might be related to variations in susceptibility to atherosclerosis among different individuals and vascular regions; and (ii) differences in motion parameters between the RCA and LAD might relate to differences in their susceptibility to atherosclerosis.     

Imaging of all three coronary arteries by transthoracic echocardiography. an illustrated guide

Background

Improvements in ultrasound technology has enabled direct, transthoracic visualization of long portions of coronary arteries : the left anterior descending (LAD), circumflex (Cx) and right coronary artery (RCA). Transthoracic measurements of coronary flow velocity were proved to be highly reproducible and correlated with invasive measurements. While clinical applications of transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) of principal coronary arteries are still very limited they will likely grow. The echocardiographers may therefore be interested to know the ultrasonic views, technique of examination and be aware where to look for coronary arteries and how to optimize the images.

Methods

A step-by-step approach to direct, transthoracic visualization of the LAD, Cx and RCA is presented. The technique of examination is discussed, correlations with basic coronary angiography views and heart anatomy are shown and extensively illustrated with photographs and movie-pictures. Hints concerning optimization of ultrasound images are presented and artifacts of imaging are discussed.

Conclusions

Direct, transthoracic examination of the LAD, Cx and RCA in adults is possible and may become a useful adjunct to other methods of coronary artery examination but studies are needed to establish its role.