Studies on the effects of bait and sampling intensity on trapping and estimating Wood mice, Apodemus sylvaticus

The effects of baiting a Longworth trap with whole oats and the density of traps on an area, or sampling intensity, on trapping and estimating Wood mice were studied on two neighbouring woodland plots in November 1971. Standard capture-mark-recapture (CMR) methods were used for two weeks followed by five nights of removal trapping.
The presence of bait significantly increased the likelihood of capturing marked and unmarked animals. By increasing the sampling intensity a greater proportion of the population was sampled, although the number of animals captured per trap night decreased. These results have been related to the "effective" number of traps on an area.
Observations on population structure, weather, movement and capturing marked and unmarked animals have been made. CMR population estimates closely resembled the cumulative number of individuals captured in each study and were for the main part lower than the estimates from the removal trapping carried out at the end of the studies.     

The effect of odour on trap response in Microtus townsendii

To investigate trap response of Microtus townsendii we set dirty Longworth traps soiled with faeces, urine and other debris and clean Longworth traps washed in hot water in field plots. Voles entered dirty traps significantly more than clean traps. This result was more pronounced in new animals and in young animals. When all clean or all dirty traps were set on a field plot, a much larger proportion of the animals known to occur on an area were caught in dirty traps than were caught in clean traps. This effect was most pronounced in the summer and fall period and was strongly correlated with the presence of breeding females.     

Influence of pitfall versus Longworth livetraps, bait addition, and drift fences on trap success and mortality of shrews

Pitfall trapping is believed to be the most efficient method for capturing shrews (Sorex spp.); however, Longworth live-traps have been used successfully in North America and Great Britain. Due to high metabolic rates, previous attempts to livetrap shrews have been faced with very high (exceeding 95 % in some circumstances) mortality rates. Here we report the results of two experiments attempting to integrate successful livetrapping of shrews into standard rodent trapping protocols. In Experiment 1 we compared efficiency of pitfall and Longworth live-traps operated with drift fences on 1-ha trapping grids for capturing vagrant shrews (Sorex vagrans) on agricultural set-asides in Delta, British Columbia, Canada. A total of 100 trap stations, on each of three trapping grids, were equipped with a 3-m-long drift fence and randomly assigned either one pitfall at the centre of each fence, or two Longworth traps, one at each end of the fence. In addition, we randomly selected 50 % of trap stations and provided 6 g of mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) larvae as bait. In response to high mortality rates, we varied the frequency of trap checks, with intervals of 12–14 h (long), 6–9 h (medium) and 3–4 h (short). Contrary to our predictions, Longworth traps captured significantly more shrews than pitfall traps. We observed the highest mean mortality rates in traps without mealworms, checked at long intervals. Shrews in mealworm-baited traps checked at short intervals experienced no mortality. Mortality rates in mealworm-baited traps checked at short and medium intervals were similar (t?=??1.33, P?=?0.20, Bonferroni-corrected alpha?=?0.004). In Experiment 2, we attempted to determine the relative gains in efficiency when using drift fences in conjunction with Longworth and pitfall traps. However, due to small sample size, we were unable to detect significant differences. A trapping protocol using Longworth traps in conjunction with drift fences, provided with mealworms as food, and checked at a maximum interval of 8 h should be sufficient to effectively include shrews in rodent livetrapping studies.     

The efficiency of two widely used commercial live-traps to develop monitoring protocols for small mammal biodiversity

Biodiversity monitoring programs have been implemented worldwide as a source of information on ecosystem functioning. However, controversy concerning the indicators that should be monitored, and the development of adequate monitoring protocols for multi-species communities still hamper such implementation, especially in the case of small mammals. We analyze differences in the efficiency of the two most widely used commercial traps (Longworth and Sherman) working simultaneously in eight different mountain habitats in Andorra country (NE Iberia) as a first step for establishing standardized sampling protocols for species-rich small mammal communities. From summer 2008 to fall 2010 (six sampling occasions) we captured a total of 728 small mammal individuals (1445 including recaptures) of 13 species (12 in Longworth and 11 in Sherman, 10 species shared). Despite some specific biases (underestimation of two large species by Longworth traps and underestimation of one small species by Sherman traps), estimates of community parameters and similarity indexes, sampling efficiency (number of small mammals trapped), detectability, mean weight, and sex-ratio of the most abundant species, were similar for both sampling methods. Our results suggested that both trap models could be used interchangeably – without relevant biases – in small mammal community assessments where large species are infrequent. Focussing monitoring programs on highly detectable small mammal species (common species) would allow the establishment of robust monitoring programs aimed at reducing the time invested and economic costs.     

Effectiveness of seasonal malaria chemoprevention in three regions of Togo: a population-based longitudinal study from 2013 to 2020

Human landing catches (HLC) are an entomological collection technique in which humans are used as attractants to capture medically relevant host-seeking mosquitoes. The use of this method has been a topic of extensive debate for decades mainly due to ethical concerns. Many alternatives to HLC have been proposed; however, no quantitative review and meta-analysis comparing HLC to outdoor alternative trapping methods has been conducted. A total of 58 comparisons across 12 countries were identified. We conducted a meta-analysis comparing the standardized mean difference of Anopheles captured by HLC and alternative traps. To explain heterogeneity, three moderators were chosen for analysis: trap type, location of study, and species captured. A meta-regression was fit to understand how the linear combination of moderators helped in explaining heterogeneity. The possibility of biased results due to publication bias was also explored. Random-effects meta-analysis showed no statistically significant difference in the mean difference of Anopheles collected. Moderator analysis was conducted to determine the effects of trap type, geographical location of study, and the species of Anopheles captured. On average, tent-based traps captured significantly more Anopheles than outdoor HLC (95% CI: [− .9065, − 0.0544]), alternative traps in Africa captured on average more mosquitoes than outdoor HLC (95% CI: [− 2.8750, − 0.0294]), and alternative traps overall captured significantly more Anopheles gambiae s.l. than outdoor HLC (95% CI: [− 4.4613, − 0.2473]) on average. Meta-regression showed that up to 55.77% of the total heterogeneity found can be explained by a linear combination of the three moderators and the interaction between trap type and species. Subset analysis on An. gambiae s.l. showed that light traps specifically captured on average more of this species than HLC (95% CI: [− 18.3751, − 1.0629]). Publication bias likely exists. With 59.65% of studies reporting p-values less than 0.025, we believe there is an over representation in the literature of results indicating that alternative traps are superior to outdoor HLC. Currently, there is no consensus on a single “magic bullet” alternative to outdoor HLC. The diversity of many alternative trap comparisons restricts potential metrics for comparisons to outdoor HLC. Further standardization and specific question-driven trap evaluations that consider target vector species and the vector control landscape are needed to allow for robust meta-analyses with less heterogeneity and to develop data-driven decision-making tools for malaria vector surveillance and control.     

Radio-controlled up-net enclosure to capture free-ranging Alpine chamois <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rupicapra rupicapra</Emphasis>

We used an enclosure trap with a lifting net to capture Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra). The trap was activated by remote radio-controlled electromagnets powered by photovoltaic modules. The up-net trap had considerable advantages over mechanical methods described in the literature for the capture of chamois. During 36 capture sessions, we captured 50 chamois, or 1.39 animals per session. Capture success was 96.2% of the average of 1.4 animals that entered the trap during a capture session. Mortality was 2%, and another 2% of the captured chamois was injured. There were no known postrelease capture-induced pathologies, and the capture effort was 1.7 man-days per chamois. The trap allowed to select specific target animals and to capture sex–age classes (particularly kids and their mothers) that are normally difficult or impossible to capture. It could be set off from a distance; it only required about 4 h to assemble and could be operated by as few as two people.     

Evaluation of mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) species richness using two sampling methods in the hydroelectric reservoir of Simplício, Minas Gerais, Brazil

We compared two types of light traps used for monitoring mosquito abundance in the hydroelectric reservoir of Simplício, Além Paraíba - Minas Gerais. Mosquitoes were captured bimonthly using automatic CDC and Shannon traps before the filling of the hydroelectric plant reservoir from December 2008 to December 2009. In total, 1474 specimens from 13 genera were captured. Among the captured specimens, several species known to be vectors of disease-causing agents for humans and/or animals were identified, including Anopheles aquasalis, Aedes albopictus, Coquillettidia venezuelensis, Haemagogus leucocelaenus, and Aedes scapularis. Sampling efficacy between the four capture sites was not found to be significantly different, irrespective of species captured or type of trap used. Poor correlation (r (x, y) = -0.0444) between the number of mosquito species and capture site was observed when not influenced by the type of trap used. Among the installation sites of the CDC and Shannon traps in the areas investigated, CDC traps fixed in livestock shelters obtained an overall higher abundance of species captured.     

Early detection and population monitoring of Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae) in a mixed-fruit orchard in northern Greece

Population monitoring of the Mediterranean fruit fly,Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), was studied in 1998 in a mixed-fruit orchard in northern Greece, using International Pheromone McPhail traps (IPMT) baited with the female targeted attractants ammonium acetate, putrescine, and trimethylamine, and Jackson traps baited with the male specific parapheromone trimedlure. Special emphasis was placed on detecting the low initial adult population resulting from surviving overwintering larvae as early as possible in the spring and early summer. Traps were suspended on various host trees, using trap grid densities of either 15 or 1.5 traps per hectare. The first adults detected were females captured on 24 June in IPMT traps suspended on apricot trees, which are among the earliest maturing hosts in the area. From the end of July, the most effective trap was the IPMT trap placed on peaches, which followed apricots in the fruit ripening sequence. IPMT traps captured predominately females (approximately 80% of the total captures) and by far outperformed Jackson traps in early detection (the first males in Jackson traps were captured in August) as well as in total captures until mid-October. After mid-October, however, more flies were captured in Jackson traps. Comparing the performance of two trap grid densities on apple trees (the common host in the two grids), we found that in the high-density trap grid the first adults were detected 1 wk earlier than in the low-density trap grid. Our findings for this locality suggest that trap type and plant species on which traps are suspended are of key importance in early detection and population monitoring of C. capitata.     

Evaluation of yellow rectangle traps coated with hot melt pressure sensitive adhesive and sticky gel against Rhagoletis indifferens (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Sticky yellow rectangle traps have been used for many years to capture Rhagoletis (Diptera: Tephritidae) fruit flies. Traditional sticky yellow traps are coated with a sticky gel (SG) that can leave residues on the hands of users. An alternative to SG on traps are hot melt pressure sensitive adhesives (HMPSAs), which are less messy. The main objective here was to evaluate two rectangle traps of two yellow colors, the Alpha Scents Yellow Card coated with HMPSA (Alpha Scents, West Linn, OR), and the Pherocon AM trap coated with SG (Pherocon; Trécé, Adair, OK), for capturing western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran. Flies captured on both traps and held in the laboratory and field did not escape their surfaces. Flies caught on HMPSA were damaged when removed from traps without citrus solvent, whereas flies caught on SG could be removed intact without solvent. In field tests, Alpha Scents traps baited with an ammonium bicarbonate lure captured 1.4-2.2 times more R. indifferens than Pherocon traps baited with the same lure. Results of an experiment that eliminated differences in surface sticky material type, overall size, and surface sticky area between Alpha Scents and Pherocon traps suggested, although did not show conclusively, that more flies were caught on the Alpha Scents than Pherocon traps because of their different yellow color and/or lower fluorescence and not the HMPSA. Overall, the Alpha Scents trap is a viable alternative to the Pherocon trap for detecting R. indifferens.     

Development of the BG-Malaria trap as an alternative to human-landing catches for the capture of Anopheles darlingi

Although the human-landing catch (HLC) method is the most effective for collecting anthropophilic anophelines, it has been increasingly abandoned, primarily for ethical considerations. The objective of the present study was to develop a new trap for the collection of Anopheles darlingi . The initial trials were conducted using the BG-Sentinel trap as a standard for further trap development based on colour, airflow direction and illumination. The performance of the trap was then compared with those of the CDC, Fay-Prince, counterflow geometry trap (CFG) and HLC. All trials were conducted outdoors between 06:00 pm-08:00 pm. Female specimens of An. darlingi were dissected to determine their parity. A total of 8,334 anophelines were captured, of which 4,945 were identified as An. darlingi . The best trap configuration was an all-white version, with an upward airflow and no required light source. This configuration was subsequently named BG-Malaria (BGM). The BGM captured significantly more anophelines than any of the other traps tested and was similar to HLC with respect to the number and parity of anophelines. The BGM trap can be used as an alternative to HLC for collecting anophelines.     

Design and evaluation of traps for Idiarthron subquadratum (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) with farmer participation in coffee plantations in Chiapas, Mexico

Three new types of traps designed and made by farmers were evaluated for capture of Idiarthron subquadratum Saussure & Pictet. Bag, sack, and fabric traps were compared with previously used bamboo internode traps. A participatory methodology was used involving farmer interviews and workshops to design and make the traps. Farmer participation was useful for obtaining information on perceptions, knowledge, and control activities of I. subquadratum. The bag trap captured a greater number of individuals than the bamboo and fabric traps, but its captures were similar to those of sack trap; captures were similar in bamboo, sack, and fabric traps. When captured individuals were analyzed by stage of development, no significant differences between types of traps were detected for captured adults. The number of individuals captured in the traps showed a similar trend to that counted in nocturnal sampling. A significant positive relationship was detected between numbers of adults captured and the damage of leaves and fruits. Taylor's Power Law indicates that I. subquadratum individuals were more abundant in some traps than in others. With densities greater than five individuals per trap, a smaller number of bag traps was required to estimate the same population compared with the other types of traps. Sampling procedure that used the bag traps had the lowest cost. This study shows that resource-poor coffee, Coffea arabica L., farmers had accumulated knowledge of I. subquadratum based on unpublished data and experience and that they were capable of applying this knowledge to develop an economical and more suitable technology for their conditions.     

A citizen‐trapper effort to control Common Myna: Trap success,specificity and preferred bait type

We describe a community‐run effort to cull Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis) in Melbourne undertaken with modest funding (overall: $30.14 per trap day, $5.17 per euthanized Common Myna). Trap success (overall, 0.04 birds per trap per day) peaked early in the effort and slowly declined. Trap specificity was high (83.8%) and similar between bait types. Dry cat food captured more Common Myna, and a similar assemblage of animals, to dry dog food. Bread baits captured a broader assemblage of animals. The community‐led trapping programme reduced the mean density of Common Myna and achieved high target specificity with relatively few unintended trap deaths. While long‐term impacts on the population of Common Myna or native birds are yet to be analysed, the results suggest that ongoing effort is required for population suppression.     

Comparison of two synthetic food-odor lures for captures of feral Mexican fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Mexico and implications regarding use of irradiated flies to assess lure efficacy

Feral Mexican fruit flies, Anastrepha ludens (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae), were trapped in a citrus orchard in Mexico by using two types of synthetic food-odor lures, the AFF lure (Anastrepha fruit fly lure, APTIV, Inc., Portland, OR) and the BioLure (two-component MFF lure, Suterra LLC, Inc., Bend, OR). In Multilure traps (Better World Manufacturing, Inc., Miami, FL) containing water, BioLures captured about the same numbers of flies as AFF lures. In Multilure traps containing antifreeze solution, BioLures captured 2 and 5 times more flies than AFF lures in two experiments. BioLures, and AFF lures did not differ in attractiveness when used on sticky traps (Intercept trap, APTIV, Inc.; and sticky cylinder trap). Multilure traps captured >4 times as many flies as sticky traps with the exception that captures of females did not differ between Multilure and sticky traps baited with AFF lures. The percentage of females captured in Multilure traps was greater when traps were baited with BioLures compared with AFF lures, but the reverse was true for sticky traps. Sticky cylinder traps captured a higher percentage of females than Multilure traps. The most effective trap/lure combination was the Multilure trap baited with BioLure and antifreeze. In comparison with tests of these two lures in Texas, results were similar for Multilure traps, but they differed for sticky cylinder traps in that AFF lures were consistently more attractive than BioLures in Texas, but not in Mexico.     

Jackson trap efficiency capturing Bactrocera dorsalis and Zeugodacus cucurbitae with male lures with and without insecticides

Jackson traps baited with male lures with or without insecticides are essential components of surveillance and monitoring programmes against pest tephritid fruit flies. The ability of a trap to capture a fly that enters, sometimes termed ‘trap efficiency’, is dependent on many factors including the trap/lure/toxicant combination. We tested the effects of three important components of Jackson traps on efficiency of capture of two important fruit fly species, using the ‘standard’ (i.e. as they are used in the state-wide surveillance programme in California) and alternative setups: Insecticide (Naled, DDVP or None), type of adhesive on the sticky panel (Seabright Laboratories Stickem Special Regular or Stickem Special HiTack) and use of a single or combination male lure (Methyl eugenol and/or cuelure). Experiments were conducted in large outdoor carousel olfactometers with known numbers of Bactrocera dorsalis and Zeugodacus cucurbitae and by trapping wild populations of the same two species. Lures were aged out to eight weeks to develop a comprehensive dataset on trap efficiency of the various combinations. Results indicate that the current liquid lure/naled combinations on cotton wicks used in California for surveillance of these flies can be effectively replaced by plastic polymer plugs for the lure and pre-packaged DDVP strips with no loss of trap efficiency for eight weeks of use or longer. The ‘high tack’ adhesive showed no advantage over the current standard against these flies, and both have low efficiency when used without an insecticide in the trap. Combination lure + DDVP varied when compared to the current standard liquid lure + naled: Olfactometer assays showed similar efficiency between them for B. dorsalis, but higher efficiency for the wafer against Z. cucurbitae. Field result showed similar or slightly higher performance of the wafer compared with the standard for B. dorsalis, but a much lower catch of Z. cucurbitae.     

Effect of Net-Gun Capture on Survival of Mule Deer

Capture techniques to deploy radio-collars often risk mortality and injury to the animal. Capture-induced mortality can affect population sizes but also introduces bias in survival estimates based on data from captured animals. In recent years, a large-scale research and monitoring project in Utah, USA, has involved capturing and radio-collaring hundreds of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), a species of great interest in large parts of North America. Our objective was to investigate how the survival rates of these mule deer were affected by capture and handling. During winters of 2014–2018, an experienced capture crew net-gunned and fitted 1,805 animals with global positioning system (GPS)-collars. We estimated survival rates during the first 6 weeks after capture using Cox proportional hazard regression, and compared the survival rates of animals that were captured in a particular year to those of animals that were not captured but fitted with a GPS-collar in a previous year. We used a model selection framework to evaluate how long survival rates of captured animals were different from those of animals that were not captured. Our results indicated that weekly survival rates of captured animals were 0.985 ± 0.003 (SE), 0.988 ± 0.002, and 0.990 ± 0.001 in weeks 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Weekly survival rates of captured deer during weeks 4–6 were 0.993 ± 0.001, the same as those of deer that were not captured at the same time. Furthermore, post-capture survival rates were positively influenced by body size and negatively influenced by age. We conclude that the mortality resulting from helicopter capture was low but recommend comparing newly captured and previously captured individuals to examine what proportion of observed mortality is likely capture-related. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

A comparison of Lucitraps and sticky targets for sampling the blowfly Lucilia sericata

The Lucitrap (Miazma Pty Ltd, Queensland, Australia) combined with a synthetic odour bait, Lucilure (Miazma Pty Ltd, Queensland, Australia), is a commercially available trap for sampling and control of Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann) in Australia. It was tested in Hungary against Lucilia sericata (Meigen) (Diptera: Calliphoridae), a cause of sheep strike throughout temperate Europe. The standard Lucitrap was tested against black or yellow sticky target traps. Both trap types were baited with either Lucilure or liver and 10% w/v sodium sulphide solution. With Lucilure as bait, L. sericata were caught on sticky traps but not in Lucitraps. With liver and sodium sulphide as bait, sticky traps caught 500-1500 times more L. sericata than Lucitraps. An adhesive sheet fitted to the top of a Lucitrap captured 30-300 times more L. sericata then were captured inside an unaltered Lucitrap. Direct observation of metallic green calliphorids (92.1% L. sericata) alighting on Lucitraps indicated that most flies stayed for a short while (modal class 2-4 s) and only a few stayed longer, to an observed maximum of 28 s. Flies explored a mean of 1.5 entry holes (range 0-7) during a visit but only 6% entered the trap. Size of L. sericata was not a physical barrier to Lucitrap entry, because many larger species were captured. However, L. sericata captured inside Lucitraps were significantly smaller than those captured on sticky traps, demonstrating that size was of behavioural importance. The data demonstrate that the Lucitrap is not effective as a trap for L. sericata in Hungary, due mainly to a failure of flies to enter the trap in large numbers. In Australia and South Africa, L. sericata is commonly caught in Lucitraps baited with Lucilure, although L. cuprina is more numerous. Our study highlights the potential for diversity of fly behaviour between different geographical populations of the same species. Such diversity can have a significant effect on the functioning of systems for fly sampling and control, when these systems depend for their success on certain behavioural responses of the target species.     

Emergence trap developed to capture adult large pine weevil Hylobius abietis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and its parasite Bracon hylobii (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

A novel type of emergence trap capable of capturing and separating 'live' insect catches is described. The trap was shown to be 96% efficient at capturing newly emergent adult Hylobius abietis Linnaeus on bare ground and at least 82% efficient over stumps on a weedy Sitka spruce clearfell. The trap was more than 80% efficient at capturing Bracon hylobii Ratzeburg, the most commonly found parasite of H. abietis. It was also shown to be effective at capturing adult H. abietis of unknown age (98%), indicating that it could also be used to trap out H. abietis from known areas to estimate on-site overwintering densities. Fifty-four percent of newly emergent weevils were captured within 12 h of release on bare mineral soils. Forty-two percent of unknown age weevils and 52% of parasites were captured within 1 h of their release within the trap. The rapid rates of capture mean that when traps are checked frequently they can be used to reflect accurately temporal patterns of emergence. Its potential for use in control programmes and ecological studies is discussed.     

An effective strategy for trapping Douglas-fir beetle, Dendroctonus pseudotsugae (Col., Scolytidae) using combinations of unbaited and pheromone baited funnel traps

Experiments were conducted to confirm and quantify earlier observations that unbaited funnel traps in conjunction with pheromone baited funnel traps may substantially increase trap catches of Douglas-fir beetles, Dendroctonus pseudotsugae . In 12 replicates of one of these experiments during 1998 and 1999, the catches of a single baited control trap were compared to those of a set of four traps where the central trap was baited and a ring of three traps, 1 m from the central trap arranged in a star configuration, were unbaited. In the second experiment conducted during 1999, a ring of three unbaited traps was placed at 2 m and a second at 5 m from the central baited trap. Statistically robust results demonstrated clearly that the configuration of one central baited trap plus three unbaited satellite traps collected twice as many beetles on average over the season compared to the baited control trap. Addition of a second ring of unbaited traps increased collections by only about 20%, but this experiment indicated that trap catches dropped off exponentially with distance from the centre. The number of beetles caught in the baited traps was essentially the same in all 3 arrangements, suggesting that the additional unbaited traps captured beetles that otherwise may not have been captured.     

Impact of trap design, windbreaks, and weather on captures of European corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) in pheromone-baited traps

Pheromone-baited traps are often used in ecological studies of the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). However, differences in trap captures may be confounded by trap design, trap location relative to a windbreak, and changes in local weather. The objectives of this experiment were, first, to examine differences in 0. nubilalis adult (moth) captures among the Intercept wing trap, the Intercept bucket/funnel UNI trap, and the Hartstack wire-mesh, 75-cm-diameter cone trap (large metal cone trap) as well as among three cone trap designs. Second, we examined the influence of the location of the large metal cone trap relative to a windbreak on the number of moths captured. Third, we examined the relationship between nightly mean air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, precipitation, and the number of moths captured in large metal cone traps. The number of moths captured was significantly influenced by trap design, with large metal cone traps capturing the most moths. Wing and bucket traps were ineffective. Differences among trap captures were significant among trap locations relative to a windbreak. Under strong (>14 kph) or moderate (7 <14 kph) wind speeds, traps located leeward of the windbreak captured the most moths, but when wind speeds were light (<7 kph), traps not associated with windbreaks captured the most moths. The multiple regression model fitted to the relationship between number of moths captured per Julian date and nightly weather patterns was significant. Nightly mean air temperature was the most influential parameter in the model, and its relationship with moth capture was positive.     

An improved method for light- and electron microscopial studies of nematode/fungal interactions

A method is presented that enables studies to be made of single nematode-fungal interactions under conditions where fungal growth at the expense of external nutrients is prevented. The nematophagous fungus Arthrobotrys ologospora was used as a model organism in these studies. The method is based on removal of the traps from the vegetative mycelium, immediately after a nematode was captured and transfer of the trap with the captured nematode into a droplet of sterile distilled water placed in a moisture chamber. In the absence of external nutrients, such isolated traps of A. oligospora were fully effective in penetrating and subsequently digesting the captured nematode. Solely vegetative mycelium was formed at the expense of the digested nematode; this developed from the trap that originally had captured the nematode. One advantage of the present method is that studies on various stages of the nematode-fungal interaction can now be performed under conditions that exclude major influences of external nutrients which otherwise could be communicated to the trap cells by way of the vegetative mycelium.