Metabolic enzymes in seasonally acclimatized and cold acclimated rufous-collared sparrow inhabiting a Chilean Mediterranean environment

Due to the higher energy requirements of birds during winter, it is predicted that the activities of metabolic enzymes （e.g., citrate synthase, CS and cytochrome C oxidase, COX） should increase in tandem with increases in rates of energy expendi ture （e.g., basal metabolic rate, BMR）. However, there is mixed support for the hypothesis of enzymatic acclimatization. Fur thermore, there is little information about the effect of ambient temperature on energetics and tissue enzyme activity levels in passerines inhabiting seasonal Mediterranean environments. In this study we evaluated the interplay between BMR and enzyme activities of freshly caught individuals of the passerine Zonotrichia capensis in winter and summer in a Mediterranean environment from central Chile, and also in warm （30℃） and cold （15℃） labacclimated birds. The results revealed a lack of seasonal variation in BMR, thermal conductance and in the activity of CS and COX. However, we found higher BMR and lower thermal conductance in coldacclimated than in warmacclimated birds. Also, total CS activity was higher in the flight muscles of coldacclimated than in warmacclimated birds. We found also a significant correlation between BMR and total CS activity in pectoral muscle. Although some authors have suggested that BMR mainly depends on the metabolic intensity and mass of internal organs, our results revealed that skeletal muscles such as the flight muscles may also affect BMR. Finally, differences in the accli mation and acclimatization responses in Rufouscollared sparrows suggest that largescale oscillations in the physical environment might maintain the capacity for flexibility in thermogenic traits through generations .     

Genome‐wide analysis of Nilaparvata lugens nymphal responses to high‐density and low‐quality rice hosts

The brown planthopper (BPH) Nilaparvata lugens is an economically important pest on rice plants. In this study, the higher population density and yellow‐ripe stage of rice plants were used to construct adverse survival conditions (ASC) against BPH nymphs. Simultaneously, the low population density and tillering stage of rice plants were used to establish a suitable survival condition (SSC) as a control. Solexa/Illumina sequencing was used to identify genes of BPH nymphs responding to ASC. Significantly longer duration development of BPH nymphs and significantly lower brachypterous ratio of BPH adults were observed by ASC compared with SSC. A total of 2 544 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained and analyzed by BLASTx, Gene Ontology and KEGG Orthology. Gene ontology analysis revealed that the DEGs were mainly involved in categories of cell, cell part, cellular process, binding, catalytic, organelle and metabolic processes. 1 138 DEGs having enzyme commission numbers were assigned to different metabolic pathways. The largest clusters were neurodegenerative diseases (137, 12.0%), followed by carbohydrate metabolism (113, 9.9%), amino acid metabolism (94, 8.3%), nucleotide metabolism (76, 6.7%), energy metabolism (64, 5.6%), translation (60, 5.3%), lipid metabolism (58, 5.1%), and folding, sorting and degradation (52, 4.6%). Expressing profile of 11 DEGs during eight nymphal developmental stages of BPH were analyzed by quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction. The 11 genes exhibited differential expression between ASC and SSC during at least one developmental stage. The DEGs identified in this study provide molecular proof of how BPH reconfigures its gene expression profile to adapt to overcrowding and low‐quality hosts.     

Digital imaging approaches for phenotyping whole plant nitrogen and phosphorus response in Bracbypodium distacbyon

This work evaluates the phenotypic response of the model grass （Brachypodium distacbyon （L.） P. Beauv.） to nitrogen and phosphorus nutrition using a combination of imaging techniques and destructive harvest of shoots and roots. Reference line Bd21-3 was grown in pots using 11 phosphorus and 11 nitrogen concentrations to establish a dose-response curve. Shoot biovolume and biomass, root length and biomass, and tissue phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations increased with nutrient concentration. Shoot biovolume, estimated by imaging, was highly correlated with dry weight （R2 〉 0.92） and both biovolume and growth rate responded strongly to nutrient availability. Higher nutrient supply increased nodal root length more than other root types. Photochemical efficiency was strongly reduced by low phosphorus concentrations as early as 1 week after germination, suggesting that this measurement may be suitable for high throughput screening of phosphorus response. In contrast, nitrogen concentration had little effect on photochemical efficiency. Changes in biovolume over time were used to compare growth rates of four accessions in response tonitrogen and phosphorus supply. We demonstrate that a time series image-based approach coupled with mathematical modeling provides higher resolution of genotypic response to nutrient supply than traditional destructive techniques and shows promise for high throughput screening and determina- tion of genomic regions associated with superior nutrient use efficiency.     

Identification and characterization of genes involved in the jasmonate biosynthetic and signaling pathways in mulberry （Morus notabilis）

Jasmonate （JA） is an important phytohormone regulating growth, development, and environmental response in plants, particularly defense response against herbivorous insects. Recently, completion of the draft genome of the mulberry （Morus notabilis） in conjunction with genome sequencing of silkworm （Bombyx mori） provides an opportuni-ty to study this unique plant-herbivore interaction. Here, we identified genes involved in JA biosynthetic and signaling pathways in the genome of mulberry for the first time, with the majority of samples showing a tissue-biased expression pattern. The analysis of the representative genes 12-oxophy-todienoic acid reductase （OPRs） and jasmonate ZIM-domain （JAZs） was performed and the results indicated that the mulberry genome contains a relatively smal number of JA biosynthetic and signaling pathway genes. A gene encoding an＆amp;nbsp;important repressor, MnNINJA, was identified as an alternative splicing variant lacking an ethylene-responsive element binding factor-associated amphiphilic repression motif. Having this fundamental information wil facilitate future functional study of JA-related genes pertaining to mulberry-silkworm interactions.     

Genealogy and phylogeography of Cyprinid fish Labeo rohita （Hamilton, 1822） inferred from ATPase 6 and 8 mitochondrial DNA gene analysis

ATPase 6/8 gene （842 bp） of mitochondrial DNA was sequenced in Labeo rohita samples （n = 253） collected from nine rivers belonging to four river basins; Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra and Mahanadi. Analysis revealed 44 haplotypes with high haplotype diversity （Hd） 0.694 and low nucleotide diversity （π） 0.001. The within population variation was larger （83.44%） than among population differences （16.56%）. The mean Fsv value （0.166; P 〈 0.05） for overall populations revealed moderate level of genetic structuring in the wild L. rohita populations. The haplotype network presented a single clade for wild L. rohita population, from different rivers. Negative values for Fu＇s index （Fs）, mismatch distribution analysis indicated period of expansion in L. rohita population. The time after recent expansion was estimated for each population, between 0.042 to 0.167 mya. The pattern of Isolation by Distance （IBD） was not significant （r = -0.113, P 〈 0.287）, when all the sampling locations were compared （Mantel test）, however, when an outlier （Indus, Brahmaputra and Mahanadi） was removed from the whole population set, a clear positive correlation between pairwise Fsv and geographic distance （Km） was seen. The analysis of data demonstrated that ATPase6/8 gene polymorphism is a potential marker to understand genetic population structure of wild L. rohita existing in different rivers. The study identified population substructure in wild L. rohita with common ancestral origin [Current Zoology 60 （4）： 460--471, 2014].     

Molecular mechanisms of insect adaptation to plant defense： Lessons learned from a Bruchid beetle

Plants can accumulate, constitutively and/or after induction, a wide variety of defense compounds in their tissues that confer resistance to herbivorous insects. The naturally occurring plant resistance gene pool can serve as an arsenal in pest management via transgenic approaches. As insect-plant interaction research rapidly advances, it has gradually become clear that the effects of plant defense compounds are determined not only by their toxicity toward target sites, but also by how insects respond to the challenge. Insect digestive tracts are not passive targets of plant defense, but often can adapt to dietary challenge and successfully deal with various plant toxins and anti-metabolites. This adaptive response has posed an obstacle to biotechnology-based pest control approaches, which underscores the importance of understanding insect adaptive mechanisms. Molecular studies on the impact of protease inhibitors on insect digestion have contributed significantly to our understanding of insect adaptation to plant defense. This review will focus on exposing how the insect responds to protease inhibitors by both qualitative and quantitative remodeling of their digestive proteases using the cowpea bruchid-soybean cysteine protease inhibitor N system.     

Ferritin acts as a target site for the snowdrop lectin （GNA） in the midgut of the cotton leafworm Spodoptera littoralis

The snowdrop lectin GNA （Galanthus nivalis agglutinin） has been shown to possess insecticidal activity to a range of economically important insect pests. However, the precise mechanism of insecticidal action of GNA against insects remains unknown. In this investigation, we attempted to purify and identify receptor（s） responsible for binding of GNA in the larval midgut of a major lepidopteran pest （the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis） to better understand its mode of action. Therefore, cytoplasmic as well as membrane proteins from 800 larval midguts were chromatographed on a column with immobilized GNA. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis of the proteins eluted from the GNA column followed by sequencing of the GNA-binding proteins and BLAST analyses revealed that the N-terminal sequences of a 24 kDa polypeptide purified from the cytoplasmic and membrane protein fraction revealed sequence similarity to sequences encoding heavy chain homologs of ferritin from Manduca sexta （76% sequence identity）, Calpodes ethlius （80% sequence identity） and Bombyx mori （61% sequence identity）. Furthermore, the N-terminal sequence of a 31 kDa polypeptide from the membrane protein fraction showed sequence similarity to a light chain homolog of ferritin from Manduca sexta （88% sequence identity）.     

Male size does not correlate with fertilization success in two bufonid toads that show size-assortative mating

We examined sexual size dimorphism （SSD）, mating pattem, fertilization efficiency and female reproductive traits in two bufonid toads （Bufo gargarizans and Duttaphrynus melanostictus） to test the idea that importance of male body size for egg fertilization success depends on the mating pattern. Female-biased SSD was evident only in D. melanostictus. Female B. gar- garizans laid fewer larger eggs nearly three months earlier than did female D. melanostictus. Fertilization efficieneies on average were higher in B. gargarizans （95%） than in D. melanostictus （91%）. Though differing in the degree of SSD, body size, breeding season, clutch size, egg size and fertilization efficiency, the two toads were similar in four aspects： （1） both showed size-assortative mating; （2） females did not tradeoff egg size against egg number; （3） male size, clutch size and clutch dry mass were greater in male-larger than in female-larger pairs after accounting for female snout-vent length （SVL）; and （4） the ratio of male to female SVL did not affect fertilization efficiency. Our data show that： （1） a female preference for large males is likely not important in terms of egg fertilization success; （2） a male preference for large females is likely important because larger females are more fecund; and （3） size-assortative mating arises from a male preference for large females. Our study demonstrates that male size is not always important for egg fertilization success in anurans that show size-assortative mating.     

Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of three odorant binding protein gene transcripts in Dendrolimus species （Lepidoptera： Lasiocampidae）

Pine caterpillar moths, Dendrolimus spp. （Lepidoptera： Lasiocampidae）, are serious economic pest of pines. Previously, phylogenetic analyses of Dendrolimus using different methods yielded inconsistent results. The chemosensory systems of insects may play fundamental roles in promoting speciation. Odorant-binding proteins （OBPs） participate in the first step of odor detection. Studying the evolution of OBPs in closely related species may help us to identify their role in speciation. We identified three OBPs - one pheromone-binding protein and two general odorant-binding proteins - from male antennae of four Dendrolimus species, D. superans （Butler）, D. punctatus （Walker）, D. kikuchii Matsumura, and D. houi Lajonquiere, the olfactory recognition systems of which had not been previously investigated. We analyzed their molecular characteristics and compared their sequences to those of OBPs in D. tabulaeformis Tsai et Liu. Ka/Ks ratio analyses among the five Dendrolimus species indicate that PBP1 genes experienced more evolutionary pressure than the GOBPs. Phylogenetic relationships of PBP1 and GOBP1 both indicated that D. houi was the basal species, then branched D. kikuchii, while D. tabulaeformis, D. punctatus, and D. superans evolved more recently. These relationships are consistent with the changes in sex pheromone components of these five species. Dendrolimus tabulaeformis and D. punctatus are closely related sister species. However, the distances among GOBP2 sequences in the five Dendrolimus were very short, and the relationships of D. houi and D. la＇kuchii could not be resolved. Integrating our results with those of previous studies, we hypothesized that D. kikuchii, D. punctatus and D. superans evolved from the basal ancestor because of sex pheromone mutations and environmental pressure.     

Evolution of deceit by worthless donations in a nuptial gift-giving spider

Males of the nursery web spider Pisaura mirabil usually offer an insect prey wrapped in white silk as a nuptial gift to facilitate copulation. Males exploit female foraging preferences in a sexual context as females feed on the gift during copula- tion. It is possible for males to copulate without a gift, however strong female preference for the gift leads to dramatically higher mating success for gift-giving males. Females are polyandrous, and gift-giving males achieve higher mating success, longer copulations, and increased sperm transfer that confer advantages in sperm competition. Intriguingly, field studies show that ap- proximately one third of males carry a worthless gift consisting of dry and empty insect exoskeletons or plant fragments wrapped in white silk. Silk wrapping disguises gift content and females are able to disclose gift content only after accepting and feeding on the gift, meanwhile males succeed in transferring sperm. The evolution of deceit by worthless gift donation may be favoured by strong intra-sexual competition and costs of gift-construction including prey capture, lost foraging opportunities and investment in silk wrapping. Females that receive empty worthless gifts terminate copulation sooner, which reduces sperm transfer and likely disadvantages males in sperm competition. The gift-giving trait may thus become a target of sexually antagonistic co-evolution, where deceit by worthless gifts leads to female resistance to the trait. We discuss factors such as female mating rate and intensity of sperm competition that may shape the evolution of male deception, and how ecological factors may influence the evolution and maintenance of worthless gifts as an evolutionarily stable alternative mating strategy by frequency dependent selection     

Antipredator deception in terrestrial vertebrates

Abstract Deceptive antipredator defense mechanisms fall into three categories： depriving predators of knowledge of prey＇s presence, providing cues that deceive predators about prey handling, and dishonest signaling. Deceptive defenses in terrestrial vertebrates include aspects of crypsis such as background matching and countershading, visual and acoustic Batesian mimicry, active defenses that make animals seem more difficult to handle such as increase in apparent size and threats, feigning injury and death, distractive behaviours, and aspects of flight. After reviewing these defenses, I attempt a preliminary evaluation of which aspects of antipredator deception are most widespread in amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds     

Uropygial gland volatiles may code for olfactory information about sex,individual, and species in Bengalese finches Lonchura striata

Over-shadowed by eye-catching vocal and visual signals, chemical communication has long been overlooked in birds. This study aimed at exploring whether volatile composition of the uropygial gland secretion （UGS） of birds was associated with the information about sex, individual and species. By using dichloromethane extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry （GC-MS）, we analyzed the UGS volatiles of domesticated Bengalese finches （ Lonchura striata, Estrildiea） which is also known as white-rumped munias. We characterized 16 volatile molecules from the UGS, including eight n-alkanols, five diesters, an ester, an aldehyde and a fatty acid, and quantified them in terms of GC peak area percentages （relative abundances） . Among these compounds, hexadecanol and octadecanol were major components in both sexes. The former was richer in males than in females and the latter richer in females than in males, suggesting that they might be male and female pheromone candidates, respectively. The high inter-individual variations, in relative abundance, of the UGS volatiles implied that these compounds might carry information about individuality. The similarity between GC profiles of the UGS and wing feather from same individuals indicates that the birds might preen the secretion to their feathers to transmit chemical cues. Additionally, by comparing with three sympatric passerine species, i. e., zebra finches Taeniopygia guttata, yellow-bowed buntings Emberiza chrysophrys and rooks Corvus frugilegus, we found that the composition of C13 - C18 alkanols in the UGS might code for information about species. Our study also showed that quantitative differences （degree） of same UGS volatiles might be the key for the Bengalese finch to code for information about sex and individuality whereas both the kind and degree of UGS constituents could be utilized to code for information about species [ Current Zoology 55 （5）： 357-365, 2009].     

New Replacement Name for Rana paradoxa Mocquard, 1890 with Designations of Lectotypes for Rana paradoxa and Rana conspicil- lata Giinther, 1872： Both Synonymized with Limnonectes kuhlii （Tschudi, 1838） （Dicroglossidae： Dicroglossinae）

Fanged frogs, now called Limnonectes kuhlii, from Borneo are remotely related to true Javanese L. kuhliL For future taxonomy of Bornean fanged frogs, we fix the nomenclatural status of two existing names, Rana conspicillata Giunther, 1872 and Rana paradoxa Mocquard, 1890. Morphological comparison of the type-series revealed heterospecific relationships of the two species. For R. conspicillata, we designate BMNH 1947.2.29.20 as the lectotype, and for R. para doxa, we also designate MNHN 1889.222 as the lectotype and propose a replacement name Limnonectes mocquardi, in order to stabilize their nomenclature.     

Conservation and behavior of Africa＇s ＂Big Five＂

We examine the conservation status of Africa＇s ＂Big Five＂： lion, leopard, buffalo, black and white rhinoceros and elephant, and the role of behavioral knowledge in their conservation. Efforts to conserve these flagship species consist of in situ conservation, captive breeding and reintroductions. With a few exceptions, we find limited evidence that knowledge of behavior informs conservation programs targeted at these species. For management in the wild, knowledge of infanticide and ranging can provide guidelines for realistic hunting quotas and corridors between protected areas, respectively. For ex situ and reintroduction programs, behavioral knowledge is chiefly focused on improved animal husbandry. Despite a formidable understanding of these species＇ behavior, the practicalities of using such knowledge may be diminished because exploitation of these species is so forceful and the bulk of efforts aimed at conserving these species （and indeed most other African species） are primarily in situ where behaviorally driven interventions are limited. Our comparative findings suggest that behavior has been of rather narrow use in the conservation of these flagship species [Current Zoology 60 （4）： 486--499, 2014].     

Mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 of Nosema bombycis： A marker in Microsporidian evolution

Microsporidia are a group of intracelluar eukaryotic parasites, which can infected almost all animals, including human beings. Till now, no mitochodria but mitosome, a remnant of mitochondria was discovered in this phylum. We present here the mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase El （PDH, including PDHα and PDHβ） of the microsporidian Nosema bombycis, the pathogen of silkworm pebrine. Compared with PDH of microsporidian Encephalitozoon cuniculi and Antonospora locustae, both subunits are eonscrced. The phylogeny indicated that both subunits are mitochondrial. The syntenic maps revealed the subunits organization of NbPDH is distributed in different scaffolds, similar to that of EcPDH but different with AIPDH, and the relationship between phylogeny tree and organization of PDH suggest that the AlPDH subunits organization is the ancestral style of microsporidia, and through the genome evolution, the reshuffling of the chromosome of microsporidia occurred, the adjacent style of ALPDHE1 organization changed, and the two subunits separated and located to different chromosomes in E. cuniculi. For N. bombycis and N. ceranae, they locate to different scaffolds. In order to determine NbPDH subcellular localizations, we prepared the polyclonal antibodies against NbPDH prokaryotic fusion proteins, and adopted the colloidal gold immunological electron microscopy, the expression signals of NbPDH were observed in spores however, the subcellular localization were not definited. In general, through comparison of three mierosporidian PDH molecular phylogeny, subunits organization in chromosomes, localization indicated that PDH is an interesting marker in microsporidia evolution     

The impact of attractants on pocket gopher trapping

Pocket gophers （Geomyidae） have an extensive impact on both natural and agricultural systems. Trapping is a tech- nique often used to sample and manage these populations. The identification of an attractant that increases capture rates of pocket gophers would greatly assist researchers and pest management professionals alike. Therefore, we tested the attractiveness of four attractants （peanut butter, anise, grapefruit attractant, and carrot） plus a control （no attractant） using uncovered and covered trap sets to determine what impact they have on visitation and capture rates of pocket gophers. We also determined how the impact of cover status and attractants differ across varying weights and gender of pocket gophers. We found no direct effect of any attracrant on visitation and capture rates of pocket gophers, nor on the gender of captured individuals. However, when no attractant was used, the mtmber of pocket gophers captured per 100 trap nights was greater when trap sets were uncovered vs. when covered, and capture rates were generally high and consistent when using peanut butter as an attractant. Additionally, we noted that covered trap sets that were baited with peanut butter yielded heavier pocket gopher captures than uncovered trap sets using this same attractant. This is key, given the difficulty associated with capturing older, more experienced individuals. Combined with data from a previous investigation, this suggests that there is no advantage to using any attractant when utilizing uncovered trap sets, but there is likely some benefit to using peanut butter in covered trap sets [Current Zoology 60 （4）： 472-478, 2014].