Lunar Philia in a Nocturnal Primate

The influence of moonlight on behavior has been well documented for many nocturnal mammals, including rodents, lagomorphs, badgers and bats. These studies have consistently shown that nocturnal mammals respond to bright moonlight by reducing their foraging activity, restricting their movement, and reducing their vocalizations. Lunar phobia among nocturnal mammals is generally believed to be a form of predator avoidance: numerous studies indicate that predation increases during moonlit nights. A study I conducted at Tangkoko Nature Reserve in Sulawesi, Indonesia, demonstrates that spectral tarsiers, (Tarsius spectrum), are not lunar phobic, but are lunar philic; they become more active during full moons. During full moons, spectral tarsiers increased foraging, decreased resting, increased travel (distance traveled per unit time, nightly path length, and home range size), increased the frequency of group travel and decreased the frequency of olfactory communication. I explore several potential hypotheses to account for the lack of lunar phobia and potential increased risk of predation resulting from this unusual behavior. Two hypotheses that may account for the behavior are that: 1) foraging efficiency increases during full moons and outweighs the increased risk of predation, and 2) predation risk is not greater during full moons. Instead, predation risk increases during new moons.     

Mirror-Directed Social Behaviors of Garnett's Greater Bush Baby (Otolemur garnettii)

Many diurnal anthropoid species direct social behaviors toward their own mirror-image as though viewing a conspecific. To determine whether a nocturnal prosimian species would behave similarly, we videotaped social responses of 45 Garnett's greater bush babies (Otolemur garnettii) observing mirror-images for the first time, scored them for frequency and duration, and compared them with the same behaviors directed elsewhere in the test apparatus. Males scentmarked more than females did, principally with the hindfoot, and most when in immediate proximity to the mirror. Bush babies displayed bipedal posture and threat gestures when oriented directly toward a mirror from a near position. Orientation toward the mirror also increased the frequency of arched-back postures; however, this behavior was not contingent on proximity to the mirror or visibility of the mirror-image. The differential expression of specific behaviors toward mirror-images by male and female bush babies supports the view that this nocturnal prosimian, thought to be dependent on olfaction and audition for communication, is capable of specific recognition by visual cues alone.     

Isolation and characterization of 12 microsatellite loci for population studies of Sulawesi tarsiers (Tarsius spp.)

This study reports the development and characterization of the first 12 microsatellite markers for tarsiers. Nine loci were isolated from Dian's tarsier, Tarsius dianae and three from the Philippine tarsier, Tarsius syrichta. The 12 markers were used to screen 40 individuals of Dian's tarsier and 40 individuals of the Lariang tarsier, Tarsius lariang for allelic diversity. This suite of highly polymorphic microsatellites provides the first chance to genetically study parentage patterns in tarsiers.     

A lesser predilection for bugs: Hemiptera (Insecta) diversity in tropical rain forests

Data are presented on the Hemiptera fauna of a moderately large and topographically diverse area of tropical rain forest in Sulawesi Utara, Indonesia. Insects were sampled using several methods at several sites over a 1-year period. The numbers of described and undescribed species captured is used to predict the number of extant species of both Hemiptera and total insects in the world. The global estimates of 1.84–2.57 million species of insect are much lower than the 10–80 million predicted by Erwin and Stork from a study of tropical Coleoptera. The reasons for believing that the lower estimates are more reliable are discussed.     

Epibiont protozoan communities on Caridina lanceolata (Crustacea, Decapoda) from the Malili lakes of Sulawesi (Indonesia)

The epibiont protozoan communities living on the freshwater shrimp Caridina lanceolata Woltereck, 1937a from the three major lakes (Towuti, Matano and Mahalona) of the Malili lake system (Sulawesi, Indonesia) were studied. The number of epibionts varied between 2 and 971 per shrimp. Seven protozoan ciliate species were found: Acineta sulawesiensis n. sp., Cothurnia sp., Zoothamnium sp. (in all three lakes), Vorticella sp. (Lake Mahalona and Lake Matano), Opercularia sp. (Lake Mahalona), Epistylis sp. (Lake Mahalona and Lake Matano), and Podophrya sp. (Lake Mahalona). Although these ciliates had been found previously on other crustaceans, they have not been observed as epibionts on Caridina H. Milne Edwards, 1837. The distribution of the different epibiont species on the anatomical units of the shrimp was analyzed in each lake. There is a statistical significant difference between the three lakes in respect to the number of epibionts on each anatomical unit of all analyzed shrimps. The total and mean densities of each epibiont species on the different analyzed shrimps showed a significant difference between the three lakes; i.e., the presence of each epibiont species on the population of C. lanceolata varied from one lake to another. In Lake Towuti the highest density of epibionts was found on the anterior part of the shrimp body (rostrum, antennae, antennulae and eyes) (32.41%), while in the other two lakes, the highest colonization corresponded to the maxillipeds (31.56% Lake Matano, 40.89% Lake Mahalona). In Lake Towuti the rest of epibionts colonized mainly maxillipeds and pleopods (both 45.76% of epibionts). In Lake Matano, other epibionts were distributed principally on the anterior part of the body and pleopods (in total 57.18% of epibionts). In Lake Mahalona, other epibionts were divided among the anterior part of the body, pereiopods and pleopods (in total 57.39% of the epibionts). Uropods and telson were the units less colonized in Lake Matano (3.64%) and Lake Mahalona (1.72%), while in Lake Towuti, they presented a moderate density (13.18% of the epibionts). Taking into account the distribution of epibionts along the antero-posterior axis of the shrimp, considering the different anatomical units, there was a significant correlation between the three lakes. This fact indicates that, in the three lakes, the colonization on C. lanceolata followed a similar distribution pattern, independently of the epibiont species present. The comparison between the distributions of the same epibiont species along the longitudinal axis of the shrimp on the diverse lakes showed that they correlated respect to their density values on the anatomical units of the shrimp. Diverse aspects of the colonization patterns are discussed. Morphological features, taxonomic identification, and particular distribution of the epibiont species in each lake are also included.     

Did the genus Parandrocephalus Heller, 1916 (Coleoptera,Cerambycidae, Callichromatini) cross the Wallace line? The taxonomic status of Parandrocephalus blairi Bentanachs & Vives 2009 and a new subgenus of Hexamitodera Heller, 1896, with notes on convergent evolution and secondary sexual characters

The genera Parandrocephalus Heller, 1916 and Hexamitodera Heller, 1896 are reviewed and redescribed. Based on the combination of chromatic sexual dimorphism, velvety pubescence on the whole dorsal body and distinctly developed carina on the elytra, Parandrocephalus blairi Bentanachs & Vives, 2009 is transferred to Hexamitodera.A new subgenus, Sulcognatha Perger, is instituted to accommodate mandible, head and metasternal modifications in Hexamitodera blairi comb. n. that are lacking in the type species of Hexamitodera, Hexamitodera semivelutina. As indicated by fundamental structural differences in the mandibles of Parandrocephalus and Hexamitodera (Sulcognatha) blairi comb. n., the exaggerated secondary sexual traits and open procoxal cavities in both taxa are presumably the result of convergent evolution. Contrary to Bentanachs & Vives (2009), the presence of the two Parandrocephalus species in Sundaland and the endemism of Hexamitodera on Sulawesi agree well with the zoogeographical separation of both areas by the Wallace line.     

Social organization of Galagos in Kenyan coastal forests: I. Galago zanzibaricus

The social organization of Galago zanzibaricus was studied for the first time and the study included data from two different sites in the coastal forests of Kenya. A combination of mark-recapture and radio-tracking techniques was used to investigate patterns of inter- and intrasexual home range overlap. Associations in sleeping groups indicated social ties between individuals. Patterns of range use were established by radio-tracking focal individuals. Adult males generally had nonoverlapping ranges, shared with one or two females and their offspring with which the male regularly slept. Young females remained longer in their natal ranges than males and reproduced within their natal ranges. Range size and distance traveled per night were similar between the sexes; both sexes probably defended territories. None of the other galago (bushbaby) species studied to date show the degree of close male-female association found in G. zanzibaricus. This study thus extends the variety of social organization documented in nocturnal prosimians.     

Observations on reproduction,hormones, copulatory behavior,and neonatal mortality in captive Lemur mongoz (Mongoose lemur)

This study examines correlates of reproduction in Lemur mongoz, an endangered prosimian primate with a history of poor captive reproduction. Male testicular growth and regression were quantified via testicular indices (TI). Although TIs could be used to predict male breeding condition, they were not indicators of ability to sire offspring. Serum estradiol (E₂) and progesterone (P) concentrations, along with vaginal cytology, were used to monitor female reproductive cyclicity. E₂ and P profiles showed no abnormalities. An elevation of E₂ with low P, approximately one estrous cycle length (31.4 days) prior to the onset of fertile cycles, was consistent with the phenomenon of ‘pseudoestrus’ observed in other lemur species. The copulatory pattern, consisting of thrusting, multiple intromissions, single or multiple ejaculations, and no copulatory lock, was more complex than expected for an animal with a supposedly monogamous mating system. The preference for natural arboreal substrata during copulation suggests that enclosure furnishings may influence copulatory behavior. A 30% neonatal mortality rate tempered recent success in breeding L. mongoz at the Duke University Primate Center (DUPC). Although infant sex and parity of the mother were not predictive of neonatal mortality, mother's natal status was, with captive-born females having a 67% infant mortality rate, compared with 15% in wild-caught females. Based on these observations, a number of factors, including housing, behavior, and photoperiod, may be relevant to successful captive propagation of L. mongoz. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Nest Predation Risk on Ground and Shrub Nests in Forest Margin Areas of Sulawesi, Indonesia

Forest loss and fragmentation in Indonesia may seriously affect the survivorship of forest birds and lead to local extinction of bird populations. We used 786 artificial nests baited with quail eggs to examine the effect of habitat alteration on nest predation in Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi. Natural forest and four habitats of forest margin areas: forest edge, forest gardens, coffee plantations, and secondary forest, were studied. Two types of artificial nests, ground and shrub nests were placed in these habitats at two different locations for a period of 8 days. In addition, we used automatic cameras and cage-traps to identify the predators. Nests in shrubs experienced significantly higher predation rates in forest margin areas than in natural forest. Predation on ground nests did not differ significantly between these habitat types, but was significantly higher than that on shrub nests in each habitat except forest edge. Rodents were the most common predators of both nests, but shrub nests were also susceptible to Dwarf cuscus (Strigocuscus celebensis), squirrels, and tree snakes. The nest predation rates we found were among the highest found in tropical rainforests, probably a consequence of the unique predator assemblages of Sulawesi. These results suggest that egg survival is negatively affected by human intervention and that human-induced habitats might have only limited importance for the conservation of Sulawesi's largely endemic understorey avifauna. These considerations might be important since forest margins comprise significant proportions of protected areas on Sulawesi and play an important role in future Park zoning concepts as well as in conservation-oriented land use management.     

Social organization of Galagos in Kenyan coastal forests: II. Galago garnettii

The social organization of Galago garnettii was studied for the first time and the study included data from two different sites in the coastal forests of Kenya. A combination of mark-recapture and radio-tracking techniques was used to investigate patterns of inter- and intrasexual home range overlap. Patterns of range use were established by radio tracking focal individuals. Adult females of different ages shared highly overlapping ranges, while like-aged females showed little range overlap. Females matured and had their first infants in their natal ranges. Adult males' ranges were larger than those of females and overlapped them extensively. Resident adult males showed little range overlap with each other, unless they were of different ages. Turnover of males was frequent in both populations. Males probably dispersed from their natal ranges. Adults rarely slept together. The social organization of G. garnettii is relatively similar to that of the closely related G. crassicaudatus of southern Africa but contrasts with that of its sympatric congener, G. zanzibaricus. The differences and similarities between these three species are discussed in relation to diet and body size.