Combined transport of water and ions through membrane channels

The coupling of ion and water flow through membrane channels is under dispute. Among all human aquaporins only aquaporin-6 exhibits ion channel activity. Whether aquaporin-6 functions also as a water channel cannot yet be determined with confidence. Similarly, a comparison of single-channel water permeabilities from ion channels and aquaporins suggests that ion channels may play a secondary role as water channels. However, the fraction of absorbed fluid that crosses epithelial ion channels still remains to be determined.     

Mechanosensitive ion channels

The article concentrates on the concepts of mechanosensitive ion channels that are present in practically all cells of an organism. Considered are kinetic scheme and activation principles of mechanic-sensitive ion channels. The forces affecting those channels are discussed in detail. The qualities of the channels in lipid monolayer, bilayer and real cell membrane are under consideration. Discussed are various models that analyze possibilities of channel opening depending on the membrane tension. Under discussion are the data received from studying single channels, currents in whole-cell configuration and cloned channels built into bilayer, liposomes and membrane blebs. Problems of transmitting mechanic energy to the channel through the bilayer and through the cytoskeleton are investigated. Inhibitors and activators of mechanosensitive ion channels are mentioned and their effects are considered. The functional classification of mechanosensitive ion channels is given. Described are cation SACs, potassium SACs, Ca(2+)-sensitive and Ca(2+)-insensitive SACs, anion SACs, nonselective SACs and SICs. It is proved that mechanosensitive ion channels can produce considerable currents enough to change the cell electrogenesis.     

Plasma membrane ion channels in suicidal cell death

The machinery leading to apoptosis includes altered activity of ion channels. The channels contribute to apoptotic cell shrinkage and modify intracellular ion composition. Cl(-) channels allow the exit of Cl(-), osmolytes and HCO(3)(-) leading to cell shrinkage and cytosolic acidification. K(+) exit through K(+) channels contributes to cell shrinkage and decreases intracellular K(+) concentration, which in turn favours apoptotic cell death. K(+) channel activity further determines the cell membrane potential, a driving force for Ca(2+) entry through Ca(2+) channels. Ca(2+) may enter through unselective cation channels. An increase of cytosolic Ca(2+) may stimulate several enzymes executing apoptosis. Specific ion channel blockers may either promote or counteract suicidal cell death. The present brief review addresses the role of ion channels in the regulation of suicidal cell death with special emphasis on the role of channels in CD95 induced apoptosis of lymphocytes and suicidal death of erythrocytes or eryptosis.     

G蛋白对神经细胞电压依赖性离子通道的直接调制作用

神经递质对神经细胞电压依赖性离子通道具有调制作用。近年来观察到,神经递质可通过Ｇ蛋白介导对神经细胞电压依赖性离子通道直接发挥调制作用,而不经过目前已知的多种第二信使的介导,使人们对递质,Ｇ蛋白与电压依赖性离子通道间的相互关系有了新的认识。     

Halothane inhibits the neurotoxin stimulated [14C]guanidinium influx through 'silent' sodium channels in rat glioma C6 cells

We have investigated the effect of pharmacological agents on [14C]guanidinium ion influx through sodium channels in C6 rat glioma and N18 mouse neuroblastoma cells. The sodium channels of the N18 cells can be activated by aconitine alone, indicating that they are voltage-dependent channels. In contrast, sodium channels in the C6 cells require the synergistic action of aconitine and scorpion toxin for activation and are therefore characterized as so-called silent channels. The general anesthetic halothane used at clinical concentrations, specifically inhibited the ion flux through the silent sodium channel of C6 rat glioma cells. The voltage-dependent channels of the N18 cells were insensitive to halothane at the concentrations tested.     

Cl channels in basolateral TAL membranes. XVII. Kinetic properties of mcClC-Ka,a basolateral CTAL Cl- channel

This paper describes the kinetics of Cl- flux through mcClC-Ka Cl- channels from basolateral membranes of mouse CTAL cells. We have cloned two separate but highly homologous Cl- channels, mmClC-Ka from cultured mouse MTAL cells and mcClC-Ka from cultured mouse CTAL cells. The mmClC-Ka and mcClC-Ka channels appear to mediate net Cl- absorption in the MTAL and CTAL, respectively. The kinetics of Cl- permeation through mmClC-Ka channels exhibit traditional criteria for a first-order process, including saturation kinetics. Thus mmClC-Ka channels operate functionally as if the channels were occupied by a single Cl- ion at any given time. In the present studies, we examined conductance-concentration relations in mcClC-Ka channels, and compared both mole-fraction effects and ion selectivity characteristics in mmClC-Ka and mcClC-Ka channels. In mcClC-Ka channels, we observed both self-block at high external Cl- concentrations and, at constant ionic strength, an anomalous mole-fraction effect using external solutions containing varying F-/Cl- concentrations. Neither effect was obtained in mmClC-Ka channels. These data are consistent with the possibility that Cl- permeation through mcClC-Ka channels involved multi-ion occupancy channels that expressed single-file behavior.     

Molecular restraints in the permeation pathway of ion channels

Ion channels assist and control the diffusion of ions through biological membranes. The conduction process depends on the structural characteristics of these nanopores, among which are the hydrophobicity and the afforded diameter of the conduction pathway. In this contribution, we use full atomistic free-energy molecular dynamics simulations to estimate the effect of such characteristics on the energetics of ion conduction through the activation gate of voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels. We consider specifically the ionic translocation through three different permeation pathways, corresponding to the activation gate of an atomistic model of Shaker channels in closed and partially opened conformations, and that of the open conformation of the Kv1.2 channel. In agreement with experiments, we find that the region of Val(478) constitutes the main gate. The conduction is unfavorable through this gate when the constriction is smaller than an estimated threshold of 4.5-5.0 A, mainly due to incomplete coordination-hydration of the ion. Above this critical size, e.g., for the Kv1.2, the valine gate is wide enough to allow fully coordination of the ion and therefore its diffusion on a flat energy surface. Similar to other ion channels, Kv channels appear therefore to regulate diffusion by constricting hydrophobic regions of the permeation pathway.     

Ion movement through gramicidin A channels. Studies on the diffusion-controlled association step

The permeability characteristics of gramicidin A channels are generally considered to reflect accurately the intrinsic properties of the channels themselves; i.e., the aqueous convergence regions are assumed to be negligible barriers for ion movement through the channels. The validity of this assumption has been examined by an analysis of gramicidin A single-channel current-voltage characteristics up to very high potentials (500 mV). At low permeant ion concentrations the currents approach a voltage-independent limiting value, whose magnitude is proportional to the permeant ion concentration. The magnitude of this current is decreased by experimental maneuvers that decrease the aqueous diffusion coefficient of the ions. It is concluded that the magnitude of this limiting current is determined by the diffusive ion movement through the aqueous convergence regions up to the channel entrance. It is further shown that the small-signal (ohmic) permeability properties also reflect the existence of the aqueous diffusion limitation. These results have considerable consequences for the construction of kinetic models for ion movement through gramicidin A channels. It is shown that the simple two-site-three-barrier model commonly used to interpret gramicidin A permeability data may lead to erroneous conclusions, as biionic potentials will be concentration dependent even when the channel is occupied by at most one ion. The aqueous diffusion limitation must be considered explicitly in the analysis of gramicidin A permeability characteristics. Some implications for understanding the properties of ion-conducting channels in biological membranes will be considered.     

Effects of membrane lipids on ion channel structure and function

Biologic membranes are not simply inert physical barriers, but complex and dynamic environments that affect membrane protein structure and function. Residing within these environments, ion channels control the flux of ions across the membrane through conformational changes that allow transient ion flux through a central pore. These conformational changes may be modulated by changes in transmembrane electrochemical potential, the binding of small ligands or other proteins, or changes in the local lipid environment. Ion channels play fundamental roles in cellular function and, in higher eukaryotes, are the primary means of intercellular signaling, especially between excitable cells such as neurons. The focus of this review is to examine how the composition of the bilayer affects ion channel structure and function. This is an important consideration because the bilayer composition varies greatly in different cell types and in different organellar membranes. Even within a membrane, the lipid composition differs between the inner and outer leaflets, and the composition within a given leaflet is both heterogeneous and highly dynamic. Differential packing of lipids (and proteins) leads to the formation of microdomains, and lateral diffusion of these microdomains or "lipid rafts" serve as mobile platforms for the clustering and organization of bilayer constituents including ion channels. The structure and function of these channels are sensitive to specific chemical interactions with neighboring components of the membrane and also to the biophysical properties of their membrane microenvironment (e.g., fluidity, lateral pressure profile, and bilayer thickness). As specific examples, we have focused on the K+ ion channels and the ligand-gated nicotinicoid receptors, two classes of ion channels that have been well-characterized structurally and functionally. The responsiveness of these ion channels to changes in the lipid environment illustrate how ion channels, and more generally, any membrane protein, may be regulated via cellular control of membrane composition.     

Ion channels and transporters in the development of drug resistance in cancer cells

Multi-drug resistance (MDR) to chemotherapy is the major challenge in the treatment of cancer. MDR can develop by numerous mechanisms including decreased drug uptake, increased drug efflux and the failure to undergo drug-induced apoptosis. Evasion of drug-induced apoptosis through modulation of ion transporters is the main focus of this paper and we demonstrate how pro-apoptotic ion channels are downregulated, while anti-apoptotic ion transporters are upregulated in MDR. We also discuss whether upregulation of ion transport proteins that are important for proliferation contribute to MDR. Finally, we discuss the possibility that the development of MDR involves sequential and localized upregulation of ion channels involved in proliferation and migration and a concomitant global and persistent downregulation of ion channels involved in apoptosis.     

Regulation of ion channels by integrins

Ion channels are regulated by protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of serine, threonine, and tyrosine residues. Evidence for regulation of channels by tyrosine phosphorylation comes primarily from investigations of the effects of growth factors, which act through receptor tyrosine kinases. The purpose of the present work is to summarize evidence for the regulation of ion channels by integrins, through their downstream, nonreceptor tyrosine kinases. We review both direct and indirect evidence for this regulation, with particular emphasis on Ca2+-activated K+ and voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. We then discuss the critical roles that cytoskeletal, focal-adhesion, and channel-associated scaffolding proteins may play in localizing nonreceptor tyrosine kinases to the vicinity of ion channels. We conclude by speculating on the physiological significance of these regulatory pathways.     

Ionenkanäle – Einführung aus physiologischer Perspektive

Ion channels form a complex class of membrane transport proteins. They are often classified according to their selective permeability for particular ion species as well as to their gating properties, which are controlled by either membrane voltage, ligand binding or physical stimuli. Ion transport through membrane pores embedded in protein channel complexes possesses both a chemical and an electrical dimension with ion flux causing both charge separations as well as changes in ionic concentrations. This electrochemical double-nature of ion transport is reflected in the two main physiological domains of ion channel function: in excitable cells many ion channels predominately control membrane voltage to generate fast electrical signaling, while epithelial or intracellular ion channels are mainly involved in directional ion transport. Given this framework, individual channelopathies display their major deficiencies either in fast electrical signaling or ion transport itself.     

Measuring extracellular ion gradients from single channels with ion-selective microelectrodes

Under many different conditions activated plasma membrane ion channels give rise to changes in the extracellular concentration of the permeant ion(s). The magnitude and duration of these changes are dependent on the electrochemical driving force(s) on the permeant ion(s) as well as conductance, open time, and channel density. We have modeled the change in the extracellular [K+] due to efflux through Ca2+-activated K+ channels, mSlo, to determine the range of parameters that would give rise to measurable signals in the surrounding media. Subsequently we have used extracellular, K+-selective microelectrodes to monitor localized changes in [K+]ext due to efflux through mSlo channels expressed in Xenopus oocytes. The rapid changes in [K+] show a close fit with the predicted model when the time response of the ion-selective microelectrode is taken into account, providing proof of the concept. Measurement of the change in extracellular ion concentration with ion-selective microelectrodes provides a noninvasive means for functional mapping of channel location and density, as well as characterizing the properties of ion channels in the plasma membrane.     

A common pathway for charge transport through voltage-sensing domains

Voltage-gated ion channels derive their voltage sensitivity from the movement of specific charged residues in response to a change in transmembrane potential. Several studies on mechanisms of voltage sensing in ion channels support the idea that these gating charges move through a well-defined permeation pathway. This gating pathway in a voltage-gated ion channel can also be mutated to transport free cations, including protons. The recent discovery of proton channels with sequence homology to the voltage-sensing domains suggests that evolution has perhaps exploited the same gating pathway to generate a bona fide voltage-dependent proton transporter. Here we will discuss implications of these findings on the mechanisms underlying charge (and ion) transport by voltage-sensing domains.     

Frequency response of alternating currents through the Staphylococcus aureus alpha-hemolysin ion channel

Alternating currents were measured through transmembrane ion channels formed by Staphylococcus aureus alpha-hemolysin proteins in planar bilayer membranes as part of an investigation to determine the channel's frequency response and the appropriateness of an equivalent circuit commonly used to model electrical interactions at the surface of cells. The experimental approach includes a novel method for separating the alternating current through one or more channels, which is conductive in nature, from the capacitively coupled current through the membrane. Separation of the conductive and capacitive alternating currents made it possible to measure the frequency response of the alpha-hemolysin channels. The results of the study are consistent with an equivalent circuit of a membrane capacitor in parallel with one or more channel resistors over the frequency range 30-120 Hz. The possible usefulness of frequency response data for ion channels in cell membranes during investigations of biological effects of time-varying magnetic fields is briefly discussed.     

Mass spectrometry-based phosphoproteomics reveals multisite phosphorylation on mammalian brain voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels

Voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels underlie electrical activity of neurons, and are dynamically regulated by diverse cell signaling pathways that ultimately exert their effects by altering the phosphorylation state of channel subunits. Recent mass spectrometric-based studies have led to a new appreciation of the extent and nature of phosphorylation of these ion channels in mammalian brain. This has allowed for new insights into how neurons dynamically regulate the localization, activity and expression through multisite ion channel phosphorylation.     

Plants do it differently. A new basis for potassium/sodium selectivity in the pore of an ion channel

Understanding of the molecular architecture necessary for selective K(+) permeation through the pore of ion channels is based primarily on analysis of the crystal structure of the bacterial K(+) channel KcsA, and structure:function studies of cloned animal K(+) channels. Little is known about the conduction properties of a large family of plant proteins with structural similarities to cloned animal cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (CNGCs). Animal CNGCs are nonselective cation channels that do not discriminate between Na(+) and K(+) permeation. These channels all have the same triplet of amino acids in the channel pore ion selectivity filter, and this sequence is different from that of the selectivity filter found in K(+)-selective channels. Plant CNGCs have unique pore selectivity filters; unlike those found in any other family of channels. At present, the significance of the unique pore selectivity filters of plant CNGCs, with regard to discrimination between Na(+) and K(+) permeation is unresolved. Here, we present an electrophysiological analysis of several members of this protein family; identifying the first cloned plant channel (AtCNGC1) that conducts Na(+). Another member of this ion channel family (AtCNGC2) is shown to have a selectivity filter that provides a heretofore unknown molecular basis for discrimination between K(+) and Na(+) permeation. Specific amino acids within the AtCNGC2 pore selectivity filter (Asn-416, Asp-417) are demonstrated to facilitate K(+) over Na(+) conductance. The selectivity filter of AtCNGC2 represents an alternative mechanism to the well-known GYG amino acid triplet of K(+) channels that has been identified as the critical basis for K(+) over Na(+) permeation through the pore of ion channels.     

膜片钳技术的新进展及其在药物高通量筛选中的应用

作为先进的细胞电生理技术,膜片钳一直被奉为研究离子通道的“金标准”。应用膜片钳技术可以证实细胞膜上离子通道的存在并能对其电生理特性、分子结构、药物作用机制等进行深入的研究。基因组学、蛋白质组学研究表明,以离子通道为靶标的药物研究在未来具有很大的发展空间。为了突破由于筛选技术所造成的针对离子通道为靶标的药物研发的瓶颈,近年来,对膜片钳技术进行了改进以适合药物高通量筛选的需求,由此产生了一些新的技术。本文就最近几年膜片钳技术的新进展及其在药物高通量筛选中的应用进行了综述。     

The role of ion channels in plant nutrition and prospects for their genetic manipulation

Ion channels can function in three physiological modes through their ability to: 1) accommodate osmotically significant fluxes over short periods; 2) propagate signals along or across membranes; 3) control the membrane potential. With respect to mineral nutrition it is via the control of the membrane potential that ion channels are probably most significant. In this paper the physiology and prospects for molecular biology of plant ion channels are discussed. It is concluded that identifying and altering the primary structures that determine functional characteristics of plant ion channel genes could result in changes in the transport characteristics of higher plants.     

The hidden potential of lysosomal ion channels: A new era of oncogenes

Lysosomes serve as the control centre for cellular clearance. These membrane-bound organelles receive biomolecules destined for degradation from intracellular and extracellular pathways; thus, facilitating the production of energy and shaping the fate of the cell. At the base of their functionality are the lysosomal ion channels which mediate the function of the lysosome through the modulation of ion influx and efflux. Ion channels form pores in the membrane of lysosomes and allow the passage of ions, a seemingly simple task which harbours the potential of overthrowing the cell’s stability. Considered the master regulators of ion homeostasis, these integral membrane proteins enable the proper operation of the lysosome. Defects in the structure or function of these ion channels lead to the development of lysosomal storage diseases, neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Although more than 50 years have passed since their discovery, lysosomes are not yet fully understood, with their ion channels being even less well characterized. However, significant improvements have been made in the development of drugs targeted against these ion channels as a means of combating diseases. In this review, we will examine how Ca²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ion channels affect the function of the lysosome, their involvement in hereditary and spontaneous diseases, and current ion channel-based therapies.