生物考古学视野下人类的牙齿与饮食

饮食在人类文化的起源与演变中扮演着重要角色,而牙齿作为饮食信息的主要载体,从不同角度为复原古代人类饮食谱系提供了可能。作为人类咀嚼行为、饮食结构及生业模式的直接反映,口腔疾病和牙齿表面微观痕迹的体质人类学分析显得尤其重要。牙齿中微量元素和稳定同位素的检测,对于揭示古代人类的迁徙与流动、生命在不同阶段的摄食行为与营养状况、农业的起源与发展等问题具有着不可估量的作用。本文在回顾考古遗址中出土人类牙齿的重要性及研究方法的多样性基础上,结合牙齿的生长发育特征,绘制了不同牙位各生长序列所匹配的人类年龄图谱,并参照此图谱,提出了全新的牙本质连续切片取样方法。本文构想从体质人类学与碳、氮等稳定同位素分析的角度出发,以牙本质的连续切片、肢骨及肋骨等人体组织为关联式地研究材料,在探索古人类个体生命史的基础上展望“代际考古”。     

通过稳定同位素分析云南大阴洞遗址先民的生业经济方式

农业的起源和传播是人类历史上最重要的变革之一。本文通过对云南省文山州广南县大阴洞遗址出土的17例人骨标本的C、N稳定同位素分析,探索新石器时代晚期至青铜时代,滇东南地区先民的食物结构和生业经济。结果显示,大阴洞遗址居民的δ¹³C值范围为-20.2‰ ~ -17.5‰,主要以C₃类食物为主;δ¹⁵N值范围为9.2‰ ~ 10.7‰,所处的营养级别较高;两性之间存在食谱差异,大部分男性比女性摄入更多的动物蛋白。结合相关考古发现,大阴洞遗址居民可能主要经营稻作农业,兼营狩猎;对动物资源的利用可能具有多样性,并通过采集、渔猎及家畜饲养补充食物来源。考虑到云南作为农业向中南半岛传播的重要通道,进一步对云南地区新石器-青铜时代先民的生业策略选择的梳理发现,云南地区新石器时代不同区域的人群有不同的农业经营策略。到青铜时代,随着小麦的传入,农业经济的选择更为多元化,动物资源的获取技术也更加成熟多样。不同的农业策略选择除了受到自然条件的影响,也是与相邻地区文化互动的结果。     

赤峰兴隆沟遗址人类椎骨疾病的生物考古学研究

对赤峰兴隆沟遗址第一地点出土的人类椎骨上椎体的退行性关节病(DJD)和黄韧带骨化(OLF)进行了生物考古学研究,制订了这两种病症患病程度的分级记录标准,并对患病率和患病程度均值进行了统计分析。对两性的对比发现DJD的差异主要体现在男性颈椎患病较多而女性腰椎患病较多,OLF的主要差异则是男性胸椎患病率显著高于女性。通过与对比组的比较,发现兴隆沟组腰椎、颈椎DJD患病率相对较高,并再次验证了两性患病情况存在的明显差异;兴隆沟组OLF患病率与对比组也有显著差异。兴隆沟组的椎骨患病情况不一定与生业模式有关,只反映了脊柱承受负荷的情况,其差异暗示行为模式上的差异。建议开展其他方面研究以详细了解其行为模式,同时要重视建立统一的古病理研究标准的重要性。     

海洋性聚落先民的食物结构:昙石山遗址新石器时代晚期人骨的碳氮稳定同位素分析

本文对18例昙石山文化墓葬出土人骨进行骨胶原的提取和碳氮稳定同位素测定,并通过污染鉴别,其中的17例为有效数据。有效骨样的δ~(13)C值在-20.9‰~-16.5‰范围,δ~(15)N值在8.5‰~14.4‰范围。就稳定同位素整体分析结果而言,昙石山先民主体所处营养级较高,以广泛的肉食来源和一定量的C_3类植物为生。推测肉食来源中主要有大量的海生类资源,也包含了陆生动物。进一步的分析表明,昙石山先民的食物营养级可能与社会贫富并无关联。单因素方差分析显示,未成年人的食物结构和成人基本相似,但可能更偏向于食用高营养级的食物;两性的食性未表现显著性的差异。作为一个海洋性聚落,昙石山遗址的经济活动应以渔猎采集为主,水稻种植很可能仅为辅助性的经济行为。     

东亚现代人来源的考古学思考:证据与解释

现代人的起源与扩散是当今古人类学界极具争议的问题。目前,\"多地区进化\"假说和非洲起源为主的\"同化\"假说是该争议的两大阵营。在\"多地区进化\"假说的基础上,立足中国的化石材料,吴新智提出了中国乃至东亚古人类\"连续演化、附带杂交\"的假说,认为中国的现代人主要由本地古老类型人类演化而来。本文从现代人扩散关键时段的考古材料出发,讨论氧同位素5～3阶段(大约13～3万年)考古材料在研究中国现代人形成中的作用和存在的挑战。首先,概括介绍现代人起源的主要假说和现代人扩散的假定路线——南线和北线的多重证据;其次,在此背景下,通过对中国境内考古材料的概括,分析不同石器技术可能反映的现代人来源;最后,简要探讨立足考古材料研究现代人起源与扩散的挑战。总体而言,氧同位素5～3阶段的旧石器考古材料支持中国北方南部和中国南方古人类的连续演化,同时也指示了非洲扩散而出的现代人人群自西北地区和南方地区进入中国的可能性。该模式支持中国古人类\"连续演化、附带杂交\"假说,然而我们也认识到中国现代人起源研究的考古基础仍十分薄弱,使用考古学材料研究现代人扩散的理论基础也需探讨。目前,细化、完善基础考古数据仍是中国旧石器时代考古学和古人类学学者努力的主要方向之一。如此,我们才能够更加有效地将人类化石与考古学证据融合,进而结合分子生物学的研究,更为全面地理解现代人的起源与演化。     

稳定同位素生物考古学的概念、简史、原理和目标

上世纪70年代末以降,考古遗址中出土生物材料的稳定同位素分析,在考古学和生物考古研究领域越来越发挥重要作用,成为现代考古学研究的重要组成部分。国内外学界常将其定位为分析技术,从未从学科层面予以考虑和重视。鉴于同位素分析的重要性以及学科发展的迫切性,将其由分析技术层面上升至学科层面实属大势所趋。本文将之前的\"稳定同位素分析\"首次命名为\"稳定同位素生物考古学\"(简称为同位素生物考古学),将其列为广义概念下生物考古学的重要学科分支之一。本文详细介绍了稳定同位素生物考古学的概念、研究简史、分析原理和研究目标;在分析原理上,除已有的\"我即我食\"和\"我非我食\"之外,还首次提出了\"我即我是\"和\"我即我居\";并对今后如何深入开展研究进行了展望。     

青海喇家遗址人类遗骸的锶同位素比值分析

喇家遗址位于青海省民和县,主体为齐家文化的遗存,距今大约3900~4300年。喇家遗址古代人类迁移活动的研究,对于探索黄河上游古代文明,推动该地区齐家文化研究,有着积极的学术意义。本文首先采用电感耦合等离子体质谱技术对喇家遗址出土的22个个体的44份牙釉质和骨骼样品进行了元素分析,根据检测结果排除了受到污染的2份骨骼样品。其次,通过热电离质谱分析方法对喇家遗址出土22个个体的42份牙釉质和骨骼样品及8个猪牙釉质样品的锶同位素比值进行了测定。检测数据表明,猪牙釉质的锶同位素比值的标准偏差远小于其他动物,可以推断猪由当地饲养的可能性是最大的,因此其牙釉质锶同位素比值可以代表当地的锶同位素水平。经过计算得到8个猪牙釉质的锶同位素比值的平均值为0.710930,将该平均值加或减2倍标准偏差可以得到喇家遗址当地的锶同位素比值范围在0.711058~0.710802之间。以此为前提可以推测,本次检测的22个个体中,有17个个体牙釉质的锶同位素比值在遗址当地的锶同位素比值范围内,可能为本地出生。还有2个个体牙釉质在当地的锶同位素比值范围上下限附近,姑且存疑;仅有3个个体牙釉质的锶同位素比值在遗址当地的锶同位素比值范围以外,表明这些个体可能在其他地区出生,去世后埋葬在遗址中。此外,数据分析还显示,本地出生人群牙釉质的锶同位素比值平均值与骨骼的锶同位素比值平均值比较接近,暗示喇家遗址当地古人类生活方式可能比较统一。     

中国古代儿童断奶模式与喂养方式初探——以安徽薄阳城遗址人骨的C、N稳定同位素分析为例

了解古代儿童的断奶模式和喂养方式,可望为揭示古代儿童的营养状况、生长发育以及其死亡原因提供有价值的重要信息。近些年来,通过对古代儿童骨骼的C、N稳定同位素分析,重建古代儿童的断奶模式和喂养方式,成为国际生物考古界的研究前沿,但在我国尚无任何相关报道。为此,本文以安徽滁州薄阳城遗址人骨(包含不同年龄阶段的儿童和成年人)样品为研究材料,通过对同一个体肋骨和肢骨的C、N稳定同位素分析和比较,重点探讨了我国西周时期儿童的断奶模式及喂养方式。研究结果显示:儿童在2岁已有辅食的摄入,大多数儿童在3-4岁已经完成断奶;断奶后的儿童,其食物中包含更多的植物作为辅食。本研究,印证了我国历史文献中有关儿童喂养模式的最早记载(唐代孙思邈的医书《千金方》),也为系统探索我国古代儿童的断奶模式和喂养方式提供了很好的范例。     

农业区游牧民族饮食文化的滞后性——基于大同东信广场北魏墓群人骨的稳定同位素研究

不同地域的人群具有不同的饮食传统和饮食文化。然而,当人们持续不断的直接或间接接触时,一方或双方原有的饮食文化将会产生变化,如拓跋鲜卑的饮食文化就经历了从游牧向农业的转变。本文对山西大同东信广场北魏墓群26例人骨进行了C、N稳定同位素分析,结果 (δ~(13)C值为-11.5±2.7‰,n=26;δ~(15)N值为9.8±1.2‰,n=26)显示,先民的食物类型差异较大,并包含大量的肉食资源。研究表明,以C_3类食物为主的先民主要放牧或狩猎,以C_4类食物为主的先民主要以种植粟、黍等C_4型农作物喂养家畜。大同东信广场北魏墓群人群中两种不同饮食传统的存在,显示游牧民族新的饮食习惯(以粟作农业产品为食)的形成滞后性于北魏政权的建立,这可能与气候变冷及他们的排斥有关。     

中西方旧石器文化中的技术模式的比较

对中西方旧石器文化中技术模式的比较表明,两者间存在很大的差别,充分显示了中国旧石器文化发展的特殊性以及中西方整个旧石器文化属于不同的传统。     

Stable isotope analyses of mammal skeletal remains of Holocene age from European Russia: A way to trace dietary and environmental changes

Fifty-five samples of human and animal fossil skeletal remains (sheep, cattle, horse and deer) collected at six different sites in European Russia were measured for the oxygen isotopic composition of bone phosphate (δ¹⁸Op) and for the carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) isotopic composition of bone collagen. The age of these samples ranges from 10 500 to 200 BP covering a time period of about 10 000 years. The samples come from the steppe area of southern European Russia, from the northern Black Sea coast and from an area near Moscow. From the results obtained it can be suggested that the steppe tribes were nomads, at least after 4000 BP, and that they probably moved from east to west and vice-versa (i.e. from the Volga area to the Black Sea coast). C₄ plants were present in the steppe area since 5000 BP. On the contrary, in the area near Moscow and on the Black Sea coast no C₄ species are documented at least until 5000 and 6000 BP respectively. Arid environmental conditions dominate the steppe area even though the N isotope values suggest a climatic improvement-taking place from 5000 BP towards present in terms of more humid conditions. As regards diet, it seems that the subsistence of the steppe populations was based mainly on terrestrial food and in particular on sheep with a minor contribution of fish. The populations from the Moscow area probably had a permanent economy mainly based on fishing.     

Fog in the California redwood forest: ecosystem inputs and use by plants

Fog has been viewed as an important source of moisture in many coastal ecosystems, yet its importance for the plants which inhabit these ecosystems is virtually unknown. Here, I report the results of a 3-year investigation of fog inputs and the use of fog water by plants inhabiting the heavily fog inundated coastal redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) forests of northern California. During the study period, 34%, on average, of the annual hydrologic input was from fog drip off the redwood trees themselves (interception input). When trees were absent, the average annual input from fog was only 17%, demonstrating that the trees significantly influence the magnitude of fog water input to the ecosystem. Stable hydrogen and oxygen isotope analyses of water from fog, rain, soil water, and xylem water extracted from the dominant plant species were used to characterize the water sources used by the plants. An isotopic mixing model was employed to then quantify how much fog water each plant used each month during the 3-year study. In summer, when fog was most frequent, ～19% of the water within S.sempervirens, and ～66% of the water within the understory plants came from fog after it had dripped from tree foliage into the soil; for S.sempervirens, this fog water input comprised 13–45% of its annual transpiration. For all plants, there was a significant reliance on fog as a water source, especially in summer when rainfall was absent. Dependence on fog as a moisture source was highest in the year when rainfall was lowest but fog inputs normal. Interestingly, during the mild El Niño year of 1993, when the ratio of rainfall to fog water input was significantly higher and fog inputs were lower, both the proportion and coefficient of variation in how much fog water was used by plants increased. An explanation for this is that while fog inputs were lower than normal in this El Niño year, they came at a time when plant demand for water was highest (summer). Therefore, proportional use of fog water by plants increased. The results presented suggest that fog, as a meteorological factor, plays an important role in the water relations of the plants and in the hydrology of the forest. These results demonstrate the importance of understanding the impacts of climatic factors and their oscillations on the biota. The results have important implications for ecologists, hydrologists, and forest managers interested in fog-inundated ecosystems and the plants which inhabit them.     

新疆巴里坤东黑沟遗址出土人骨的碳氮同位素分析

本文以新疆巴里坤东黑沟遗址出土的人骨为研究对象, 测定骨中的碳、氮同位素比值, 揭示该地区古代先民的食谱特征, 探索当时人们的生活与生产方式、经济形态等历史信息。研究结果发现: 人骨样品的δ13C值分布在-18.96‰~-17.74‰范围内, 样品的δ15N值均较高, 分布在12.64‰~14.33‰范围内, 表明新疆巴里坤东黑沟遗址先民的食物结构是肉类食物在日常饮食生活占有相当大的比例。根据考古发掘出土的动植物遗存, 肉类的获取应来源于驯养的牛、羊等或部分狩猎所得的鹿等动物, 植物性食物主要来源于大麦、小麦等C3类作物, 这与其生活的环境和以游牧为主, 农业和狩猎为辅的经济形态密切相关; 男性与女性的食物结构相同。     

细石叶工艺产品废弃的文化过程研究

细石叶工艺产品是如何废弃的、受哪些因素影响、又如何在考古遗存中得到表现,这些都是我们面临的课题。本文从考古遗存废弃一般过程的理论研究着手,确定影响细石叶工艺产品的因素包括史前狩猎采集者的生计策略、废弃过程中人们的行为选择两个方面;与此同时结合细石叶工艺性质预测细石叶工艺产品可能的废弃方式;然后回到对经验材料点(籍箕滩遗址)与面(华北地区主要细石叶工艺遗址)相结合的分析。整体而言,华北含细石叶工艺产品诸遗址的废弃呈现出多样的形态,有迅速而预期返回的废弃方式(籍箕滩遗址),有计划且不准备返回的废弃方式(如泗涧遗址),有人类经常光顾但不留宿的遗址(如孟家泉遗址),还有废弃迅速的临时营地(如柿子滩遗址)和狩猎动物的望点(如大岗遗址)。     

A multi-proxy Late-glacial palaeoenvironmental record from Lake Bled, Slovenia

This study investigates the palaeoecological record (δ¹⁸O, δ¹³C, pollen, plant macrofossils, chironomids and cladocera) at Lake Bled (Slovenia) sedimentary core to better understand the response of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems to Late-glacial climatic fluctuations. The multi-proxy record suggests that in the Oldest Dryas, the landscape around Lake Bled was rather open, presumably because of the cold and dry climate, with a trend towards wetter conditions, as suggested by an increase in tree pollen as well as chironomid and cladocera faunas typical for well-oxygenated water. Climatic warming at the beginning of the Late-glacial Interstadial at ca. 14,800 cal yr BP is suggested by an increase in the δ¹⁸O value, the appearance of Betula and Larix pollen and macrofossils, and a warmth-adapted chironomid fauna. With further warming at ca. 13,800 cal yr BP, broad-leaved tree taxa (Quercus, Tilia, Ulmus), Artemisia, and Picea increase, whereas chironomid data (Cricotopus B) suggest lowering of lake levels. After 12,800 cal yr BP (and throughout the Younger Dryas), the climate was colder and drier, as indicated by lower δ¹⁸O values, decline of trees, increase of microscopic charcoal, xerophytes and littoral chironomids. A warmer climate, together with the spread of broad-leaved tree taxa and a deeper, more productive lake, mark the onset of the Late-glacial/Holocene transition. These results suggest that terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems at Lake Bled were very dynamic and sensitive to Late-glacial climatic fluctuations. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorised users. Guest editors: K. Buczkó, J. Korponai, J. Padisák & S. W. Starratt Palaeolimnological Proxies as Tools of Environmental Reconstruction in Fresh Water     

Plant responses to past concentrations of CO2

The influence of recent historical changes in atmospheric CO₂ have been investigated by two methods: 1, the responses of leaf development and physiology as indicated by leaves stored in herbaria and 2, by investigating the differential growth responses of populations originating from naturally different CO₂ concentrations. Herbarium leaves indicate that stomatal density and leaf nitrogen have decreased over the last 150 to 200 years, while water use efficiency, estimated from leaf ¹³C and historical measurements of climate, has increased.Natural populations ofBoehmeria cylindrica were found growing at sites, in Florida, with CO₂ mole fractions varying naturally from 350 µmol mol^-1 to 505 µmol mol^-1. Plants were grown in the controlled environment, using seeds originating from populations occurring in the different CO₂ mole fractions. Plants from the different ambient CO₂ mole fractions showed different rates of growth and different non-linear responses of the shoot to root ratio in response to changes in the CO₂ mole fraction from 350 to 675 µmol mol^-1.The proposal that plants originating from high altitude will whow greater stimulations of growth with an increase in CO₂, than plants from low altitude, was rejected in experiments which simulated the atmospheric pressure at altitudes of 0 and 2000m, at CO₂ mole fractions of 350 and 700 µmol mol^-1 and on populations ofPlantago major originating from altitudes of 0 and 3335 m.