Orai-2 is localized on secretory granules and regulates antigen-evoked Ca mobilization and exocytosis in mast cells

The increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ through the Ca²⁺ channel is an indispensable step for the secretion of inflammatory mediators by mast cells. It was recently reported that Orai-1 is responsible for the Ca²⁺ influx that is activated by depletion of stored Ca²⁺. There are three isoforms of Orai: Orai-1, Orai-2, and Orai-3; however, isoforms other than Orai-1 are poorly understood. We found that Orai-2 is expressed and localized on secretory granules in RBL-2H3. Ca²⁺ release from Ca²⁺ store, induced by antigen stimulation, was significantly attenuated by knockdown of Orai-2, while that induced by thapsigargin was not affected. Furthermore, exocytotic release induced by antigen stimulation was inhibited in knockdown cells. This observation suggests a new role of Orai isoforms in secretory cells.     

Depletion of intracellular calcium stores activates an outward potassium current in mast and RBL-1 cells that is correlated with CRAC channel activation

Highly Ca²⁺ selective Ca²⁺ channels activated by store depletion have been recently described in several cell types and have been termed CRAC channels (for calcium release-activated calcium). The present study shows that following store depletion in mast and RBL-1 cells, monovalent outward currents could be recorded if the internal solution contained K⁺ but not Cs⁺. The activation of the outward K⁺ current correlated with the activation of I_CRAC, in both time and amplitude, suggesting that the K⁺ current might be carried by CRAC channels. The amplitude of the outward current was increased if external Ca²⁺ was reduced or replaced by external Ba²⁺. The outward K⁺ conductance might have a physiological role in maintaining the driving force for Ca²⁺ entry during the activation of CRAC channels.     

Plasma membrane stretch activates transient receptor potential vanilloid and ankyrin channels in Merkel cells from hamster buccal mucosa

Merkel cells (MCs) have been proposed to form a part of the MC-neurite complex with sensory neurons. Many transient receptor potential (TRP) channels have been identified in mammals; however, the activation properties of these channels in oral mucosal MCs remain to be clarified. We investigated the biophysical and pharmacological properties of TRP vanilloid (TRPV)-1, TRPV2, TRPV4, TRP ankyrin (TRPA)-1, and TRP melastatin (TRPM)-8 channels, which are sensitive to osmotic and mechanical stimuli by measurement of intracellular free Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) using fura-2. We also analyzed their localization patterns through immunofluorescence. MCs showed immunoreaction for TRPV1, TRPV2, TRPV4, TRPA1, and TRPM8 channels. In the presence of extracellular Ca²⁺, the hypotonic test solution evoked Ca²⁺ influx. The [Ca²⁺]_i increases were inhibited by TRPV1, TRPV2, TRPV4, or TRPA1 channel antagonists, but not by the TRPM8 channel antagonist. Application of TRPV1, TRPV2, TRPV4, TRPA1, or TRPM8 channel selective agonists elicited transient increases in [Ca²⁺]_i only in the presence of extracellular Ca²⁺. The results indicate that membrane stretching in MCs activates TRPV1, TRPV2, TRPV4, and TRPA1 channels, that it may be involved in synaptic transmission to sensory neurons, and that MCs could contribute to the mechanosensory transduction sequence.     

Ultrastructural and cytochemical studies of acid phosphatase and trimetaphosphatase in rat peritoneal mast cells developing in vivo

Summary The ultrastructural and cytochemical features of peritoneal mast cells of the rat were studied. Immature mast cells show specific cytoplasmic granules of different sizes, the smaller ones localized in the Golgi region. The rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are well developed, and mitochondria are numerous. Nuclei show deep indentations. Acid phosphatase is present in the Golgi saccules, in GERL (Golgi apparatus-endoplasmic reticulumlysosome) and in some small granules. It is not present in mature granules. Trimetaphosphatase is present in the Golgi saccules, in GERL, in most immature granules and in some mature granules. These enzymes appear to be transported and packaged into granules by the Golgi apparatus, suggesting that the specific mast cell granules may be a form of lysosome. The results of this study are consistent with the hypothesis that peritoneal mast cells may be derived from macrophage-like precursors.     

Immunoglobulin E-independent activation of mast cell is mediated by Mrg receptors

Mast cells play a central role in inflammatory and allergic reactions by releasing inflammatory mediators through two main pathways, immunoglobulin E-dependent and -independent activation. In the latter, mast cells are activated by a diverse range of basic molecules, including peptides and amines such as substance P, neuropeptide Y, and compound 48/80. These secretagogues are thought to activate the G proteins in mast cells through a receptor-independent mechanism. Here, we report that the basic molecules activate G proteins through the Mas-related gene (Mrg) receptors on mast cells, leading to mast cell degranulation. We suggest that one of the Mrg receptors, MrgX2, has an important role in regulating inflammatory responses to non-immunological activation of human mast cells.     

Neurokinin-1 receptor in peripheral nerve terminals mediates thermal hyperalgesia

Neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1) plays an important role in nociception. The present study was to explore whether activation of peripheral NK-1 receptor, especially expressed on primary sensory afferents, could induce hyperalgesia and sensitize C-type sensory afferents. (1) Intraplantar administration of NK-1 agonist [Sar9, Met(O2)11]SP (Sar-SP, 0.2, 1 nmol, 20 microl) produced significant thermal hyperalgesia and edema, which was blocked by co-injection of NK-1 antagonist WIN51,708 (10 nmol). But in the rats with compound 48/80 treatment for mast cell depletion, the Sar-SP-induced edema, but not hyperalgesia, was attenuated. (2) Close-arterial injection of Sar-SP (1 nmol, 0.1 ml) excited and sensitized sensory C afferents of the sural nerve to heat stimuli. The results suggest involvement of NK-1 receptors expressed on the peripheral afferent terminals in thermal hyperalgesia mediated by directly sensitizing C-type sensory afferents.     

Alleviation of thermal nociception depends on heat-sensitive neurons and a TRP channel in the brain

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Identification of Fyn-binding proteins in MC/9 mast cells using mass spectrometry

Fyn is a Src kinase known to have an essential role in mast cell degranulation induced following aggregation of the high affinity IgE-receptor. Although Fyn possesses SH2 and SH3 protein binding domains, the molecules that interact with Fyn have not been characterized in mast cells. We thus analyzed Fyn-binding proteins in MC/9 mast cells to explore the Fyn-mediated signaling pathway. On mass spectrometric analysis of proteins binding to the SH2 and SH3 domains of Fyn, we identified six proteins that bind to Fyn including vimentin, pyruvate kinase, p62 ras-GAP associated phosphoprotein, SLP-76, HS-1, and FYB. Among these proteins, vimentin and pyruvate kinase have not been shown to bind to Fyn. After IgE-receptor mediated stimulation, binding of vimentin to Fyn was increased; and this interaction was via binding to the SH2, but not the SH3, domain of Fyn. Mast cells from vimentin-deficient mice showed enhanced mediator release and tyrosine phosphorylation of intracellular proteins including NTAL and LAT. The observation that vimentin and pyruvate kinase bind to Fyn provides additional insight into Fyn-mediated signaling pathways, and suggests a critical role for Fyn in mast cell degranulation in interacting with both cytosolic and structural proteins.     

Association between histamine-containing mast cells and sensory nerves in the skin and airways of control and capsaicin-treated pigs

Summary The association between mast cells (visualized by routine staining and immunohistochemistry for histamine) and capsaicin-sensitive nerves (containing calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and substance P (SP)) was studied in the pig. In the 1-ethyl-3(3-diethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDCDI)-fixed skin tissue, histamine-containing mast cells and CGRP/SP-positive nerves were found in close association around blood vessels. In the EDCDI-fixed airway mucosa, only single histamine-containing mast cells were detected. However, many alcian blue-positive mast cells were found, sometimes close to the airway epithelium where CGRP/SP-containing nerve fibres were absent 2 days after systemic capsaicin pretreatment, but no changes in the number and distribution of tissue mast cells, granulocytes or lymphocytes, or the number of blood leukocytes were detected. Local injection of allergen, histamine and capsaicin into the skin of pigs actively sensitized with ascaris antigen caused a rapid light red-flare (vasodilation) reaction. Allergen and histamine, but not capsaicin, also produced plasma protein extravasation. In contrast to the absent flare, the protein extravasation response still occurred in capsaicin-treated pigs. The sensitivity to ascaris antigen was mediated by an IgE-like antibody. We conclude that a functional and morphological relationship exists between histamine-containing mast cells and capsaicin-sensitive sensory nerves in the pig skin. Mast cells and sensory nerves are also found in the airway mucosa and appear to be closely associated with the epithelium.     

Identification and functional characterization of ion channels in CD34<Superscript>+</Superscript> hematopoietic stem cells from human peripheral blood

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are used therapeutically for hematological diseases and may also serve as a source for nonhematopoietic tissue engineering in the future. In other cell types, ion channels have been investigated as potential targets for the regulation of proliferation and differentiation. However, the ion channels of HSCs remain elusive. Here, we functionally characterized the ion channels of CD34⁺ cells from human peripheral blood. Using fluorescence-activated cell sorting, we confirmed that the CD34⁺ cells also express CD45 and CD133. In the CD34⁺/CD45⁺/CD133^high HSCs, RT-PCR of 58 ion channel mRNAs revealed the coexpression of Kv1.3, Kv7.1, Nav1.7, TASK2, TALK2, TWIK2, TRPC4, TRPC6, TRPM2, TRPM7, and TRPV2. Whole-cell patch clamp recordings identified voltage-gated K⁺ currents (putatively Kv1.3), pH-sensitive TASK2-like back-ground K⁺ currents, ADP-ribose-activated TRPM2 currents, temperature-sensitive TRPV2-like currents, and diacylglycerol-analogue-activated TRPC6-like currents. Our results lend new insight into the physiological role of ion channels in HSCs, the specific implications of which require further investigation.     

Local eosinophil- and mast cell-related responses in abomasal nematode infections of lambs

Abstract Eosinophil numbers in peripheral blood and eosinophil potentiating activity(EPA) and sheep mast cell protease (SMCP) in efferent gastric lymph were monitored in lambs during infections with Ostertagia circumcincta . Worm burdens, eosinophil numbers in bone marrow, abomasal mucosa and gastric lymph node, as well as mast cell numbers and SMCP concentrations in mucosa and mucus, were determined in post mortem samples. In naive lambs, high and relatively uniform worm burdens were present 10 days after primary infection and these were associated with only mild blood and tissue eosinophilia. By day 21 worm burdens were markedly lower and more variable. There was more evidence of eosinophil and mast cell accumulation in mucosa, and numbers in bone marrow were also higher than on day 10. However, neither EPA nor SMCP were detectable in lymph. By contrast, EPA and SMCP were present in substantial amounts in draining lymph within 48 h of challenge (secondary) infection of previously exposed lambs. EPA was inversely related to worm burdens recovered on day 10, as were abomasal mucosal and mucus SMCP concentrations. Elevated eosinophil numbers were also consistently detected in blood, bone marrow, mucosa and gastric lymph node. The results suggest that host immune defence against secondary, but not primary, exposure to O. circumcincta involves a rapidly mobilised local inflammatory component.     

Rapid lineage-specific diversification of the mast cell chymase locus during mammalian evolution

Serine proteases constitute the major protein granule content of cells of several hematopoietic cell lineages. A subgroup of these proteases, including the mast cell chymases, neutrophil cathepsin G, and T cell granzymes B to F and N, are in all investigated mammals encoded in one locus, the chymase locus. It is interesting to note that this locus has diversified greatly during the last 95 Myr of mammalian evolution. This divergence is exemplified by the presence of Mcpt8-related genes and multiple β-chymases in the mouse and rat, which lack direct counterparts in primates and in seven functional granzyme genes in the mouse where the human locus has only two. To study the expansion of the locus during rodent evolution and to better understand the evolutionary origin of β-chymases and the Mcpt8-family, we have performed a detailed analysis of the chymase locus of four mammalian species, i.e., human, dog, mouse, and rat. As a result, we report here a second chymase-like gene in dog, Cma2, which clusters with β-chymases in phylogenetic analyses. This finding supports a duplication of the common ancestor for α- and β-chymases before the major radiation of placental mammals, and a loss of the ancestral β-chymase gene sometime during primate evolution. Moreover, we show that in the rat, the Mcpt8-family diversified relatively recently together with sequences related to the β-chymase Mcpt2. Eight novel genes were identified in the duplication region, four of which are predicted to be functional. Duplications of rat granzyme B- and C-like sequences occurred seemingly independently within a similar time frame, but did not give rise to functional genes. Due to the duplications in rat and deletions in the carnivore/primate lineage, the rat chymase locus is approximately 15 and 9 times larger than its counterparts in dog and human, respectively. These findings illustrate the importance of gene duplications in conferring rapid changes in mammalian genomes.     

The two faces of mast cells in food allergy and allergic asthma: The possible concept of Yin Yang

The purpose of this review is to discuss the role of mast cells in allergic inflammation. We have focused on inflammation associated with allergic asthma and food allergy. Mast cells are ‘first line of defense’ innate/adaptive immune cells and are widely distributed in tissues in surfaces exposed to the environment. Especially in allergic settings mast cells are extensively studied, as they can be activated to release a wide range of mediators by allergen-IgE specific triggers. In addition, in allergic inflammation mast cells can also be activated non-allergic triggers. Recent studies revealed that mast cells, besides the classical role of pro-inflammatory effector cell, have also emerged as modulators of allergic sensitization and down-regulators of allergic inflammation. Therefore, mast cells can be regarded as ‘Ying Yan’ modulators in allergic responses in intestinal tract and airways. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Mast Cells in Inflammation.     

益生菌对肠易激综合征小鼠肠道黏膜CRF-R1表达及肠道屏障功能的影响

目的通过观察肠易激综合征(IBS)小鼠模型结肠黏膜肥大细胞上CRF-R1及结肠黏膜PAR-2、Claudin1~4等的表达变化,探讨IBS中应激通过肥大细胞引起肠道屏障功能障碍的可能机制并观察婴儿双歧杆菌的治疗作用。方法 30只雄性Balb/c小鼠随机分为对照组、模型组及婴儿双歧杆菌组。以束缚应激法建立IBS小鼠模型。婴儿双歧杆菌组给予婴儿双歧杆菌灌胃,而对照组及模型组给予等体积生理盐水灌胃。观测腹肌收缩反射(AWR)后处死小鼠。ELISA检测外周血中类胰蛋白酶的表达变化。免疫组织化学分析结肠黏膜CRF、PAR-2、Claudin1、Claudin2、Claudin3、Claudin4的表达情况。免疫荧光双标分析结肠黏膜CRF-R1在肥大细胞的表达情况。RT-PCR检测结肠CRF-R1mRNA的表达情况。结果与对照组相比,模型组小鼠外周血类胰蛋白酶表达量增加;结肠黏膜中CRF、PAR-2、Claudin2表达量、CRF-R1+肥大细胞数目及CRF-R1 mRNA表达量增加,结肠黏膜Claudin1、Claudin3、Claudin4表达量降低,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。婴儿双歧杆菌干预后,该组小鼠外周血中类胰蛋白酶表达量降低;结肠黏膜中CRF、PAR-2、Claudin2表达量、CRF-R1+肥大细胞数目及CRF-R1 mRNA表达量降低,结肠黏膜Claudin1、Claudin3、Claudin4表达量增高,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论 IBS小鼠模型中,婴儿双歧杆菌可以减轻肠道屏障功能障碍,其机制可能与抑制结肠黏膜肥大细胞上CRF-R1的表达而抑制肥大细胞的激活及其免疫因子的释放,从而降低结肠黏膜PAR-2的表达有关。     

Differential cytotoxicity and intracellular calcium-signalling following activation of the calcium-permeable ion channels TRPV1 and TRPA1

Several members of the transient receptor channel (TRP) family can mediate a calcium-dependent cytotoxicity. In sensory neurons, vanilloids like capsaicin induce neurotoxicity by activating TRPV1. The closely related ion channel TRPA1 is also activated by irritants, but it is unclear if and how TRPA1 mediates cell death. In the present study we explored cytotoxicity and intracellular calcium signalling resulting from activation of TRPV1 and TRPA1, either heterologously expressed in HEK 293 cells or in native mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. While activation of TRPV1 by the vanilloids capsaicin, resiniferatoxin and anandamide results in calcium-dependent cell death, activation by protons and the oxidant chloramine-T failed to reduce cell viability. The TRPA1-agonists acrolein, carvacrol and capsazepine all induced cytotoxicity, but this effect is independent of TRPA1. Activation of both TRPA1 and TRPV1 triggers a strong influx of external calcium, but also a strong calcium-release from intracellular stores most likely including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Activation of TRPV1, but not TRPA1 also results in a strong increase of mitochondrial calcium both in HEK 293 cells and mouse DRG neurons. Our data demonstrate that activation of TRPV1, but not TRPA1 mediates a calcium-dependent cell death. While both receptors mediate a release of calcium from intracellular stores, only activation of TRPV1 seems to mediate a robust and probably lethal increase in mitochondrial calcium.     

肥大细胞介导的ADCC效应在抗旋毛虫病免疫机理中的作用

检测旋毛虫感染大鼠血清中的总IgE、特异性IgE和观察IgE介导的肥大细胞脱颗粒,并进一步探讨抗体依赖的(肥大)细胞介导的细胞毒性(Antibody dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity,ADCC)在旋毛虫病免疫机理中的作用。采用雄性Wistar大鼠为旋毛虫感染的动物模型,将90只大鼠随机分为10组。试验时,以ELISA双抗体夹心法和间接法分别动态检测总IgE和特异性IgE;肥大细胞脱颗粒试验采用直接法;然后采用细胞培养法观察免疫血清对肥大细胞杀伤旋毛虫肌幼虫作用的影响。在免疫血清存在时,无论感染鼠还是正常鼠的肥大细胞对旋毛虫幼虫均有杀伤作用,但以感染鼠的作用更强。肥大细胞在ADCC效应机制中对杀伤旋毛虫肌幼虫发挥了重要的作用。     

Role of mast cells in colorectal cancer development, the jury is still out

The link between inflammation and colorectal cancer development is becoming increasingly clear. It had long been recognized that patients with inflammatory bowel disease are at an increased risk of colon cancer. Evidence from experimental animals now also implicates the innate immune system in the development of sporadically occurring intestinal adenomas, the precursors to colorectal cancer. Here we discuss the interaction between the immune system and the adenoma to carcinoma sequence with a special emphasis on the role of mast cells which may play a key role in adenoma development. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Mast cells in inflammation.     

Identification of lysophosphatidylthreonine with an aromatic fatty acid surrogate as a potent inducer of mast cell degranulation

Upon various stimulations, mast cells (MCs) release a wide variety of chemical mediators stored in their cytoplasmic granules, which then initiates subsequent allergic reactions. Lysophosphatidylserine (LysoPS), a kind of lysophospholipid, potentiates the histamine release from MCs triggered by antigen stimulation. We previously showed through structure-activity studies of LysoPS analogs that LysoPS with a methyl group at the carbon of the serine residue, i.e., lysophosphatidylthreonine (LysoPT), is extremely potent in stimulating the MC degranulation. In this study, as our continuing study to identify more potent LysoPS analogs, we developed LysoPS analogs with fatty acid surrogates. We found that the substitution of oleic acid to an aromatic fatty acid surrogate (C3-pH-p-O-C11) in 2-deoxy-1-LysoPS resulted in significant increase in the ability to induce MCs degranulation compared with 2-deoxy-1-LysoPS with oleic acid. Conversion of the serine residue into the threonine residue further increased the activity of MC degranulation both in vitro and in vivo. The resulting super agonist, 2-deoxy-LysoPT with C3-pH-p-O-C11, will be a useful tool to elucidate the mechanisms of stimulatory effect of LysoPS on MC degranulation.     

Differential expression of Rab3 isoforms in high- and low-secreting mast cell lines

The expression of several isoforms of the small-molecular-weight Rab3 GTP-binding proteins is a characteristic feature of all cell types undergoing regulated exocytosis, in which Rab3 proteins are considered to regulate the assembly/disassembly of a fusion complex between granule and plasma membrane in a positive and negative manner through interaction with effector proteins. The pattern of Rab3 protein expression may, therefore, provide a subtle means of regulating exocytosis. To investigate the relationship between Rab3 expression and secretory activity, we assessed the differential expression of individual Rab3 proteins in high- and low-secreting clones of the rat basophilic (RBL) cell line. mRNAs for Rab3 isoforms (a-d) were analyzed by constructing cDNA libraries of high- and low-secreting RBL clones. The relative abundance of mRNAs for Rab3 isoforms was initially determined from the clonal frequency of corresponding cDNA clones. RT-PCR using isoform-specific primers was successfully applied to the quantitation of Rab3a mRNA. The presence of individual Rab3 proteins was revealed by SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting, and also by in situ immunofluorescence confocal microscopy. We present evidence that Rab3a and Rab3c are expressed at high levels in the low-secreting variant, while Rab3d is predominant in the high secretor. Levels of the Rab3 effector proteins, Rabphilin and Noc2, are similar in both RBL cell lines. Subcellular fractionation of unstimulated high and low secretor RBL clones revealed that in both cell types Rab3a has a cytoplasmic location while Rab3d is present in a membrane/organelle fraction containing secretory vesicles. Differences in the pattern of expression of Rab3 isoforms in the two RBL cell lines and their localisation may influence the secretory potential. Furthermore, the presence of Rab3 and effector proteins indicates that the mechanism for regulated exocytosis in cells of mast cells/basophil lineage appears similar to that in pre-synaptic vesicles and pancreatic beta-cells.