Photosynthetic and leaf morphological characteristics in Leucaena leucocephala as affected by growth under different neutral shade levels

Morphological and physiological measurements on individual leaves of Leucaena leucocephala seedlings were used to study acclimation to neutral shading. The light-saturated photosynthetic rate (P_{n max}) ranged from 19.6 to 6.5 mol CO₂ m^–2 s^–1 as photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) during growth decreased from 27 to 1.6 mol m^–2 s^–1. Stomatal density varied from 144 mm^–2 in plants grown in high PPFD to 84 mm^–2 in plants grown in low PPFD. Average maximal stomatal conductance for H₂O was 1.1 in plants grown in high PPFD and 0.3 for plants grown in low PPFD. Plants grown in low PPFD had a greater total chlorophyll content than plants grown in high PPFD (7.2 vs 2.9 mg g^–1 on a unit fresh weight basis, and 4.3 vs 3.7 mg dm^–2 on a unit leaf area basis). Leaf area was largest when plants were grown under the intermediate PPFDs. Leaf density thickness was largest when plants were grown under the largest PPFDs. It is concluded that L. leucocephala shows extensive ability to acclimate to neutral shade, and could be considered a facultative shade plant.Abbreviations the initial slope of the photosynthesis vs PPFD curve - P_{n max} the light-saturated photosynthetic rate - PPFD photosynthetic photon flux density     

Regulation of the photosynthetic capacity of primary bean leaves by the red:far-red ratio and photosynthetic photon flux density of incident light

The main objective of the present work was to examine the effects of the red:far-red ratio (R:FR) prevailing during leaf development on the photosynthetic capacity of mature leaves. Plants of Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv. Balin de Albenga were grown from time of emergence in a controlled environment room, 25 ± 3°C, 12-h photoperiod, with different light treatments:a) high photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) = 800 μmol m⁻¹ s⁻¹+ high R:FR= 1.3;b) low PPFD= 300 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹+ high R:FR= 1.3; c) high PPFD=800 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹+ low R:FR= 0.7; d) low PPFD= 300 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹+ low R:FR=0.7. With an R:FR ratio of 1.3, a decrease in irradiance during leaf growth reduced photosynthesis when measured at moderate to high PPFD; but when measured at low PPFD, leaves expanded under low irradiance actually had photosynthesis rates higher than those of leaves grown in high irradiance. A low R:FR ratio during development reduced the photosynthetic capacity of the leaves. In leaves expanded under R:FR = 0.7 and high irradiance photosynthesis was reduced by 42 to 89%, depending on the PPFD at which measurements were made, whereas for leaves developed at R:FR = 0.7 and low irradiance photosynthesis decreased by 21 to 24%, compared to leaves under R:FR = 1.3 and similar irradiance. The reduced photosynthetic capacity under R:FR = 0.7 and high irradiance. In natural environments, leaves may experience low R:FR conditions temporarily during their development, and this may affect their future photosynthetic capacity in full sunlight.     

Antioxidants and xanthophyll cycle-dependent energy dissipation in Cucurbita pepo L. and Vinca major L. acclimated to four growth PPFDs in the field

The acclimation of photochemistry, xanthophyll cycle-dependent energy dissipation, and antioxidants was characterized in leaves of Cucurbita pepo L. and Vinca major L. that developed under photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFDs) ranging from deep shade to full sunlight in the field. The predominant acclimatory response of leaf pigment composition was an increase in the xanthophyll cycle pool size with increasing growth PPFD. In both species, the estimated rate of thermal energy dissipation at midday increased with increasing PPFD and midday levels of zeaxanthin and antheraxanthin per chlorophyll were closely correlated with the levels of non-photochemical fluorescence quenching under all growth PPFD regimes. However, at full sunlight there appeared to be considerably higher levels of xanthophyll cycle dependent energy dissipation in V. major compared with pumpkin while estimated rates of photochemistry exhibited the reverse trend. Leaf activities of the antioxidant enzymes ascorbate peroxidase and superoxide dismutase, as well as ascorbate content, increased with increasing growth PPFD in both plant species. Activities/contents were higher under 100% full sunlight and increased more strongly from intermediate growth PPFDs to 100% full sunlight in V. major than in C. pepo. These patterns of acclimation are similar to those exhibited by xanthophyll cycle-dependent energy dissipation. The patterns of acclimation of glutathione reductase are discussed in the context of the multiple roles for reduced glutathione. Catalase acclimated in a manner consistent with its role in scavenging H2O2 generated via photorespiration and/or mitochondrial respiration. Leaf -tocopherol did not exhibit growth PPFD-dependent trends.     

Using combined measurements of gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence to investigate the photosynthetic light responses of plant species adapted to different light regimes

One broad-leaved pioneer tree, Alnus formosana, two broad-leaved understory shrubs, Ardisia crenata and Ardisia cornudentata, and four ferns with different light adaptation capabilities (ranked from high to low, Pyrrosia lingus, Asplenium antiquum, Diplazium donianum, Archangiopteris somai) were used to elucidate the light responses of photosynthetic rate and electron transport rate (ETR). Pot-grown materials received up to 3 levels of light intensity, i.e., 100%, 50% and 10% sunlight. Both gas exchange and chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence were measured simultaneously by an equipment under constant temperature and 7 levels (0?C2,000 ??mol m^?2 s^?1) of photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD). Plants adapted to-or acclimated to high light always had higher light-saturation point and maximal photosynthetic rate. Even materials had a broad range of photosynthetic capacity [maximal photosynthetic rate ranging from 2 to 23 ??mol(CO₂) m^?2 s^?1], the ratio of ETR to gross photosynthetic rate (P _G) was close for A. formosana and the 4 fern species when measured under constant temperature, but the PPFD varied. In addition, P. lingus and A. formosana grown under 100% sunlight and measured at different seasonal temperatures (15, 20, 25, and 30°C) showed increased ETR/P _G ratio with increasing temperature and could be fitted by first- and second-order equations, respectively. With this equation, estimated and measured P _G were closely correlated (r ² = 0.916 and r ² = 0.964 for P. lingus and A. formosana, respectively, p<0.001). These equations contain only the 2 easily obtained dynamic indicators, ETR and leaf temperature. Therefore, for some species with near ETR/P _G ratio in differential levels of PPFD, these equations could be used to simulate dynamic variation of leaf scale photosynthetic rate under different temperature and PPFD conditions.     

Influence of Etherel and Gibberellic Acid on Carbon Metabolism,Growth, and Essential Oil Accumulation in Spearmint (Mentha Spicata)

Controlled environment chamber and glasshouse studies were conducted on six herbaceous annual species grown at 350 (AC) and 700 (EC) mol(CO₂) mol^-1 to determine whether growth at EC resulted in acclimation of the apparent quantum yield of photosynthesis (QY) measured at limiting photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), or in acclimation of net photosynthetic rate (P _N) measured at saturating PPFD. It was also determined whether acclimation in P _N at limiting PPFD was correlated with acclimation of carboxylation efficiency or ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration rate measured at saturating PPFD. Growth at EC reduced both the QY and P _N at limiting PPFD in three of the six species. The occurrence of photosynthetic acclimation measured at a rate limiting PPFD was independent of whether photosynthetic acclimation was apparent at saturating measurement PPFD. At saturating measurement PPFD, acclimation to EC in the apparent carboxylation efficiency and RuBP regeneration capacity also occurred independently. Thus at least three components of the photosynthetic system may adjust independently when leaves are grown at EC. Estimates of photosynthetic acclimation at both high and low PPFD are necessary to accurately predict photosynthesis at the whole plant or canopy level as [CO₂] increases.     

Seasonal changes in light and temperature affect the balance between light harvesting and light utilisation components of photosynthesis in an evergreen understory shrub

In a temperate climate, evergreen species in the understory are exposed to large changes in photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) and temperature over the year. We determined the photosynthetic traits of leaves of an evergreen understory shrub Aucuba japonica at three sites at monthly intervals: understorys of a deciduous forest; an evergreen forest; and a gap in a mixed forest. This set up enabled us to separate the effects of seasonal change in PPFD and temperature on photosynthetic acclimation under natural conditions. The effects of PPFD and temperature were analysed by simple and multiple regression analyses. The amounts of light utilisation components (LU), represented by nitrogen and rubisco contents per area, were higher in winter, when temperature was low and PPFD was high. The LU relative to the amount of light harvesting components (LH), represented by chlorophyll a/b and rubisco/chlorophyll ratios, and the inverse of chlorophyll/nitrogen ratio were also higher in winter. We quantified the effects of PPFD and temperature on the LU and LH components. Across sites PPFD had stronger effects than air temperature, while within a site temperature had stronger effects on photosynthetic acclimation. We concluded that the photosynthetic apparatus is strongly affected by the prevailing PPFD at the time of leaf development. Within a given light regime, however, plants acclimated by increasing LU relative to LH primarily in response to temperature and to a lesser extent to PPFD.     

Light induction of nonphotochemical quenching,CO2 fixation,and photoinhibition in woody and fern species adapted to different light regimes

We aimed to find out relations among nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ), gross photosynthetic rate (P _G), and photoinhibition during photosynthetic light induction in three woody species (one pioneer tree and two understory shrubs) and four ferns adapted to different light regimes. Pot-grown plants received 100% and/or 10% sunlight according to their light-adaptation capabilities. After at least four months of light acclimation, CO₂ exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence were measured simultaneously in the laboratory. We found that during light induction the formation and relaxation of the transient NPQ was closely related to light intensity, light-adaption capability of species, and P _G. NPQ with all treatments increased rapidly within the first 1–2 min of the light induction. Thereafter, only species with high P _G and electron transport rate (ETR), i.e., one pioneer tree and one mild shade-adapted fern, showed NPQ relaxing rapidly to a low steady-state level within 6–8 min under PPFD of 100 μmol(photon) m^?2 s^?1 and ambient CO₂ concentration. Leaves with low P _Gand ETR, regardless of species characteristics or inhibition by low CO₂ concentration, showed slow or none NPQ relaxation up to 20 min after the start of low light induction. In contrast, NPQ increased slowly to a steady state (one pioneer tree) or it did not reach the steady state (the others) from 2 to 30 min under PPFD of 2,000 μmol m^?2 s^?1. Under high excess of light energy, species adapted to or plants acclimated to high light exhibited high NPQ at the initial 1 or 2 min, and showed low photoinhibition after 30 min of light induction. The value of fastest-developing NPQ can be quickly and easily obtained and might be useful for physiological studies.     

Growth response of cotton to CO2 enrichment in differing light environments

Experiments were conducted to examine the growth responses of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L. cv. Coker 315) to CO₂ enrichment under different light regimes. Plants were exposed to 350 or 700 μl l^?1 CO₂ and six light treatments differing in photosynthetic period length (8 or 16 h) and in photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) for 32 days of vegetative growth. Higher PPFD (1 100 μmol m^?2 s^?1) was provided by a combination of high intensity discharge and incandescent lamps (HID), and lower PPFD (550 μmol m^?2 s^?1) was provided by fluorescent and incandescent lamps (F) or HID and incandescent lamps with shade cloth (HID_s). Growth was generally much slower with the 8-h photosynthetic periods, but the growth stimulation by CO₂ enrichment was larger than with 16-h photosynthetic periods. After 28 to 32 days of treatment, the growth enhancement with CO₂ enrichment was 152 and 78% for 8- and 16-h photosynthetic periods, respectively, under HID; 100 and 77% in F, and 77 and 56% in HID_s. The higher PPFD of HID positively influenced the CO₂ effect only at the slower growth rate in the 8-h light period. The stimulation of leaf area expansion by CO₂ enrichment was also greater with the 8-h photosynthetic period for all light sources. These results, and others on net assimilation rate, shoot to root dry weight ratios and specific leaf weights, suggest that the growth response to CO₂ enrichment with the longer photosynthetic period was depressed by limiting factors, perhaps nutritional, in the growth environment. The results also show that extensive variability in CO₂ response can occur under light intensities which are often used in growth chamber experiments.     

Acclimation of photosynthesis to lightflecks in tomato leaves: interaction with progressive shading in a growing canopy

Plants in natural environments are often exposed to fluctuations in light intensity, and leaf‐level acclimation to light may be affected by those fluctuations. Concurrently, leaves acclimated to a given light climate can become progressively shaded as new leaves emerge and grow above them. Acclimation to shade alters characteristics such as photosynthetic capacity. To investigate the interaction of fluctuating light and progressive shading, we exposed three‐week old tomato (Solanum lycopersicum ) plants to either lightflecks or constant light intensities. Lightflecks of 20 s length and 1000 μmol m^?2 s^?1 peak intensity were applied every 5 min for 16 h per day, for 3 weeks. Lightfleck and constant light treatments received identical daily light sums (15.2 mol m^?2 day^?1). Photosynthesis was monitored in leaves 2 and 4 (counting from the bottom) during canopy development throughout the experiment. Several dynamic and steady‐state characteristics of photosynthesis became enhanced by fluctuating light when leaves were partially shaded by the upper canopy, but much less so when they were fully exposed to lightflecks. This was the case for CO₂‐saturated photosynthesis rates in leaves 2 and 4 growing under lightflecks 14 days into the treatment period. Also, leaf 2 of plants in the lightfleck treatment showed significantly faster rates of photosynthetic induction when exposed to a stepwise change in light intensity on day 15. As the plants grew larger and these leaves became increasingly shaded, acclimation of leaf‐level photosynthesis to lightflecks disappeared. These results highlight continuous acclimation of leaf photosynthesis to changing light conditions inside developing canopies.     

Seasonal and diurnal monitoring of leaf polyamine content in Quercus ilex L. resprouts after fire in relation to changes in irradiation and photosynthetic parameters

Seasonal variations in free putrescine, spermidine and spermine content, gas-exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were followed during winter and summer on leaves of a similar age from undisturbed holm oak trees (control, C) and resprouts (R) originated after fire. We observed a general trend of putrescine content decrease with increasing irradiance. Putrescine content decreased markedly from winter to summer, especially in R, which were located on a site with much higher irradiation. Daily summer variations in putrescine showed a decline at midday from morning values, and they were also more accentuated in R. Measurement of gas-exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters showed marked differences between C and R under their respective light conditions. R showed higher values of PSII quantum yield (Φ_PSII), photochemical quenching (qP) and intrinsic efficiency of open PSII centres () The Φ_PSII/PPFD response curve showed that under the same irradiance, Φ_PSII was enhanced in R and mainly under high light conditions. In spite of increasing irradiance from winter to summer, and especially in burned areas, the mentioned chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were maintained indicating the adaptation of the photosynthetic apparatus. Results derived from A/C _i and A/PPFD response curves showed enhanced photosynthetic capacity and lower non-stomatal limitation of photosynthesis in R during summer stress. The contribution of putrescine decline in the photoadaptation of the photosynthetic apparatus of species growing in natural forest habitats is considered.     

Photosynthate Partitioning into Starch in Soybean Leaves: II. IRRADIANCE LEVEL AND DAILY PHOTOSYNTHETIC PERIOD DURATION EFFECTS

Two photosynthetic periods and photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD) were used to study the relationship between the rate of photosynthesis and starch accumulation in vegetative soybean leaves (Merr. cv Amsoy 71). Plants grown in short daily photosynthetic periods (7 hours) had higher rates of CO₂ fixation per unit leaf dry weight and of leaf starch accumulation than plants grown in long daily photosynthetic periods (14 hours) irrespective of PPFD. CO₂ fixation rates per unit leaf area were similar in 7-hour and 14-hour plants grown at low PPFD but were highest in 14-hour plants at the high PPFD. When single leaves of 14-hour plants were given 7-hour photosynthetic periods, their rates of starch accumulation remained unchanged. The programming of starch accumulation rate and possibly of photosynthetic rate by the length of the daily photosynthetic period is apparently a whole-plant, not an individual leaf, phenomenon. Programming of chloroplast starch accumulation rate by length of the daily photosynthetic and/or dark periods was independent of PPFD within the ranges used in this experiment.     

Leaf expansion and carbon assimilation in cotton leaves grown at two photosynthetic photon flux densities

Increasing photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) received during development from 5.5 to 31.2 mol m^-2 d^-1 resulted in greater leaf and mesophyll cell surface areas in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). The relationships between the amounts of these surface areas and potential CO₂ assimilation by these leaves were evaluated. Leaf area (epidermal surface area of one side of a leaf), mesophyll cell surface area, and net rate of CO₂ uptake (P_n) were measured from the time leaves first unfolded until P., was substantially reduced. At the higher PPFD, leaf and mesophyll surface areas increased more rapidly during expansion, and P_n per unit leaf area was greater than at the lower PPFD. Although leaves at the higher PPFD reached the maximum P., per unit mesophyll cell surface area 4 to 5 days earlier than leaves at the lower PPFD, the maxima for these P., were similar. Leaves grown at the higher PPFD had the potential to assimilate 2.2, 3.5, or 5.8 times the amount of CO₂ as leaves from the lower PPFD when P., was expressed per unit mesophyll surface, per unit leaf surface, or per whole leaf, respectively. Greater and earlier development of both P., and mesophyll cell surface area at higher PPFD apparently had a compounding effect on the potential for carbon assimilation by a leaf.     

Contributions of leaf photosynthetic capacity, leaf angle and self-shading to the maximization of net photosynthesis in Acer saccharum: a modelling assessment

Background and Aims

Plants are expected to maximize their net photosynthetic gains and efficiently use available resources, but the fundamental principles governing trade-offs in suites of traits related to resource-use optimization remain uncertain. This study investigated whether Acer saccharum (sugar maple) saplings could maximize their net photosynthetic gains through a combination of crown structure and foliar characteristics that let all leaves maximize their photosynthetic light-use efficiency (ɛ).

Methods

A functional–structural model, LIGNUM, was used to simulate individuals of different leaf area index (LAI_ind) together with a genetic algorithm to find distributions of leaf angle (L_A) and leaf photosynthetic capacity (A_max) that maximized net carbon gain at the whole-plant level. Saplings grown in either the open or in a forest gap were simulated with A_max either unconstrained or constrained to an upper value consistent with reported values for A_max in A. saccharum.

Key Results

It was found that total net photosynthetic gain was highest when whole-plant PPFD absorption and leaf ɛ were simultaneously maximized. Maximization of ɛ required simultaneous adjustments in L_A and A_max along gradients of PPFD in the plants. When A_max was constrained to a maximum, plants growing in the open maximized their PPFD absorption but not ɛ because PPFD incident on leaves was higher than the PPFD at which ɛ_max was attainable. Average leaf ɛ in constrained plants nonetheless improved with increasing LAI_ind because of an increase in self-shading.

Conclusions

It is concluded that there are selective pressures for plants to simultaneously maximize both PPFD absorption at the scale of the whole individual and ɛ at the scale of leaves, which requires a highly integrated response between L_A, A_max and LAI_ind. The results also suggest that to maximize ɛ plants have evolved mechanisms that co-ordinate the L_A and A_max of individual leaves with PPFD availability.     

Relationship between thylakoid electron transport and photosynthetic CO2 uptake in leaves of three maize (Zea mays L.) hybrids

The introduction of a more efficient means of measuring leaf photosynthetic rates under field conditions may help to clarify the relationship between single leaf photosynthesis and crop growth rates of commercial maize hybrids. A large body of evidence suggests that gross photosynthesis (A_G) of maize leaves can be accurately estimated from measurements of thylakoid electron transport rates (ETR) using chlorophyll fluorescence techniques. However, before this technique can be adopted, it will first be necessary to determine how the relationship between chlorophyll fluorescence and CO2 assimilation is affected by the non-steady state PPFD conditions which predominate in the field. Also, it must be determined if the relationship is stable across different maize genotypes, and across phenological stages. In the present work, the relationship between ETR and A_G was examined in leaves of three maize hybrids by making simultaneous measurements of leaf gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence, both under controlled environment conditions and in the field. Under steady-state conditions, a linear relationship between ETR and A_G was observed, although a slight deviation from linearity was apparent at low A_G. This deviation may arise from an error in the assumption that respiration in illuminated leaves is equivalent to respiration in darkened leaves. The relationship between chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthetic CO2 assimilation was not stable during fluctuations in incident PPFD. Since even minor (e.g. 20%) fluctuations in incident PPFD can produce sustained ( > 20 s) departures from the mean relationship between ETR and A_G, chlorophyll fluorometry can only provide an accurate estimate of actual CO2 assimilation rates under relatively stable PPFD conditions. In the field, the mean value of ETR / A_G during the early part of the season (4.70 ± 0.07) was very similar to that observed in indoor-grown plants in the vegetative stage (4.60 ± 0.09); however, ETR / A_G increased significantly over the growing season, reaching 5.00 ± 0.09 by the late grain-filling stage. Differences in ETR / A_G among the three genotypes examined were small (less than 1% of the mean) and not statistically significant, suggesting that chlorophyll fluorometry can be used as the basis of a fair comparison of leaf photosynthetic rates among different maize cultivars.     

Effects of irradiance and spectral quality on seedling development of two Southeast Asian Hopea species

 Seedling developmental responses to understory shade combine the effects of reductions in irradiance and changes in spectral quality. We studied the seedling development of two Southeast Asian dipterocarp trees in response to differences in irradiance (photosynthetic photon flux density, PPFD) and spectral quality (red to far-red ratio, R:FR). The two species, Hopea helferei and H. odorata, are taxonomically closely related but differ in their ecological requirements; H. helferei is more drought-tolerant and typically grows in more open habitats. Seedlings were grown in six different replicated shadehouse treatments varying in percentage of solar PPFD and R:FR. The two species differed in the influence of light variables on most seedling characters, particularly for final height, internode distance, branch/trunk internodes, stem length/mass, leaf area/stem length, petiole length, and growth/mol of photons received. Most of the characters in both taxa were primarily influenced by PPFD, but spectral quality also influenced some characters – more so for H. odorata. The latter species grew more rapidly, particularly in the low PPFD treatments, and its leaves were capable of higher photosynthesis rates. However, growth in H. helferei was not reduced in direct sunlight. The growth of this taxon may be constrained by adaptations, particularly in leaves, for drought tolerance. Received: 14 April 1996 / Accepted: 8 October 1996     

Spatial distribution of leaf nitrogen and photosynthetic capacity within the foliage of individual trees: disentangling the effects of local light quality,leaf irradiance,and transpiration

There is presently no consensus about the factor(s) driving photosynthetic acclimation and the intra-canopy distribution of leaf characteristics under natural conditions. The impact was tested of local (i) light quality (red/far red ratio), (ii) leaf irradiance (PPFD(i)), and (iii) transpiration rate (E) on total non-structural carbohydrates per leaf area (TNC(a)), TNC-free leaf mass-to-area ratio (LMA), total leaf nitrogen per leaf area (N(a)), photosynthetic capacity (maximum carboxylation rate and light-saturated electron transport rate), and leaf N partitioning between carboxylation and bioenergetics within the foliage of young walnut trees grown outdoors. Light environment (quantity and quality) was controlled by placing individual branches under neutral or green screens during spring growth, and air vapour pressure deficit (VPD) was prescribed and leaf transpiration and photosynthesis measured at branch level by a branch bag technique. Under similar levels of leaf irradiance, low air vapour pressure deficit decreased transpiration rate but did not influence leaf characteristics. Close linear relationships were detected between leaf irradiance and leaf N(a), LMA or photosynthetic capacity, and low R/FR ratio decreased leaf N(a), LMA and photosynthetic capacity. Irradiance and R/FR also influenced the partitioning of leaf nitrogen into carboxylation and electron light transport. Thus, local light level and quality are the major factors driving photosynthetic acclimation and intra-canopy distribution of leaf characteristics, whereas local transpiration rate is of less importance.     

Spectral quality of monochromatic LED affects photosynthetic acclimation to high-intensity sunlight of Chrysanthemum and Spathiphyllum

Vertical farming using light-emitting diode offers potential for the early production phase (few weeks) of young ornamental plants. However, once transferred to the greenhouse, the photosynthetic acclimation of these young plants might depend on this initial light regime. To obtain insight about this acclimatization, Chrysanthemum (sun species) and Spathiphyllum (shade species) were preconditioned in growth chambers for 4 weeks under four light qualities: blue (B), red (R), red/blue (RB, 60% R) and white (W) at 100 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. Monochromatic light (R and B) limited leaf development of both species, which resulted in a lower leaf mass per area when compared to multispectral light (RB for Chrysanthemum, RB and W for Spathiphyllum). R-developed leaves had a lower photosynthetic efficiency in both species. After the light quality pretreatment, plants were transferred to the greenhouse with high-intensity natural light conditions. On the first day of transfer, R and B preconditioned leaves of both species had an inhibited photosynthesis. After 1 week in natural light condition, rapid light curve parameters of Chrysanthemum leaves that developed under B acclimated to sunlight had a similar level than RB-developed leaves unlike R-leaves. Spathiphyllum leaves showed a decrease in maximum electron transport rate and this was most pronounced for the R pretreatment. After 1 month, R-preconditioned Chrysanthemum had the lowest dry mass, while no effects on the dry weight of Spathiphyllum with respect to the pretreatments were observed. Light quality during preconditioning affected the leaf ability to acclimate to natural high light intensities in greenhouse environment.     

Fluorescence imaging application: effect of leaf age on seagrass photokinetics

We used the Imaging-PAM fluorometer to map spatial variability of photosynthesis in three seagrass species, Halophila ovalis, Zostera capricorni and Posidonia australis. Photosynthesis was described by relative photosynthetic rate (PS/50), effective quantum yield (Φ_PSII), non-photochemical quenching (NPQ and qN), electron transport rate (ETR) and leaf absorptivity. Photosynthetic patterns were linked to leaf age and light climate but patterns were not consistent across species. Longitudinal heterogeneity in photosynthesis was apparent along the leaves of all three species while lateral spatial heterogeneity was found only across Z. capricorni and H. ovalis leaves. Age of leaf tissue, determined by longitudinal location on the leaf, strongly influenced photosynthetic activity of Z. capricorni and P. australis. A comparison of H. ovalis leaves of differing maturity demonstrated the influence of leaf age on photosynthetic activity, yet a comparison of Z. capricorni leaves of differing maturity showed no leaf-age effects.Variations in stress-induced changes across a seagrass leaf can be used to identify areas or particular regions of the leaf, which are more susceptible to photodamage. Clear evidence of substantial within-leaf heterogeneity in photosynthetic activity (i.e., a two-fold variation in half saturation constant along a leaf of P. australis) has serious implications for use of small sections of leaf for photosynthetic incubations (such as O₂ or single-point chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements).     

Carbon gain and photosynthetic response of chrysanthemum to photosynthetic photon flux density cycles

Most models of carbon gain as a function of photosynthetic irradiance assume an instantaneous response to increases and decreases in irradiance. High- and low-light-grown plants differ, however, in the time required to adjust to increases and decreases in irradiance. In this study the response to a series of increases and decreases in irradiance was observed in Chrysanthemum × morifolium Ramat. “Fiesta” and compared with calculated values assuming an instantaneous response. There were significant differences between high- and low-light-grown plants in their photosynthetic response to four sequential photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) cycles consisting of 5-minute exposures to 200 and 400 micromoles per square meter per second (μmol m⁻²s⁻¹). The CO₂ assimilation rate of high-light-grown plants at the cycle peak increased throughout the PPFD sequence, but the rate of increase was similar to the increase in CO₂ assimilation rate observed under continuous high-light conditions. Low-light leaves showed more variability in their response to light cycles with no significant increase in CO₂ assimilation rate at the cycle peak during sequential cycles. Carbon gain and deviations from actual values (percentage carbon gain over- or underestimation) based on assumptions of instantaneous response were compared under continuous and cyclic light conditions. The percentage carbon gain overestimation depended on the PPFD step size and growth light level of the leaf. When leaves were exposed to a large PPFD increase, the carbon gain was overestimated by 16 to 26%. The photosynthetic response to 100 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PPFD increases and decreases was rapid, and the small overestimation of the predicted carbon gain, observed during photosynthetic induction, was almost entirely negated by the carbon gain underestimation observed after a decrease. If the PPFD cycle was 200 or 400 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, high- and low-light leaves showed a carbon gain overestimation of 25% that was not negated by the underestimation observed after a light decrease. When leaves were exposed to sequential PPFD cycles (200-400 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹), carbon gain did not differ from leaves exposed to a single PPFD cycle of identical irradiance integral that had the same step size (200-400-200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) or mean irradiance (200-300-200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹).     

Influence of spectral quality on the growth response of intact bean plants to brassinosteroid, a growth-promoting steroidal lactone. II. Chlorophyll content and partitioning of assimilate

The chlorophyll content and partitioning of assimilate of bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L. 'Pinto') plants were determined 6 days after treatment of the second internode (I₂ with 5 μg of brassinosteroid (BR), a growth-promoting steroidal lactone. Plants were grown for 6 days under equal levels (90 μmol s^-1 m^-2) of photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) provided by cool white fluorescent (CWF) or incandescent (INC) lamps and equal levels of far-red (28 W m^-2, 700–800 nm) radiation provided by the same INC or far-red (FR) fluorescent lamps. Brassinosteroid treatment had no appreciable effect on total biomass production but caused a decrease of 15–20% dry matter distribution in the upper portion of the shoot, a small (4%) but constant increase in dry matter in l₂ and a large (11–16%) increase in dry matter in the lower portion of the shoot (especially I₁). Treatment with BR increased assimilate accumulation in the primary leaves, especially under INC and FR lamps, and reduced dry matter in the trifoliate leaves. BR also caused a 16–21% reduction in total leaf area and even a greater reduction in area of the trifoliate leaves, but significantly increased specific leaf weight of the primary leaves and the first trifoliate leaf and the amount of dry matter in the lateral shoots under all radiation sources. In comparison to controls, BR treatment increased dry matter accumulation in the treated internode 3.3x under CWF and 1.6x under INC or FR. BR treatment also increased chlorophyll content in the primary leaves under all radiation sources and in the trifoliate leaves under CWF and INC lamps. These findings suggest a possible mobilization role of BR and establish the importance of adequate PPFD (and photosynthate) for maximum swelling and splitting response to brassinosteroid.