Paleoepidemiolgical patterns of trauma in a prehistoric population from central California

Skeletal trauma was investigated in a large collection of human remains from central California (N = 162 aged and sexed adults). Lesions investigated included cranial and long bone fractures, projectile wounds, and dislocation. Long bone fractures were found in 10.5% of individuals; overall, incidence by element was 2.3%. In addition, cranial injuries were found in 4.4% of complete adult crania. Projectile wounds were seen unambiguously in four individuals (with embedded obsidian fragments) and strongly suggested in two other individuals with partially healed lesions. Finally, one case of traumatic hip dislocation was also observed. In both incidence and patterning of injuries, this population is similar to other archeological groups from California. This evidence further supports earlier reports indicating that interpersonal aggression was quite common in prehistoric California.     

Skeletal evidence of trauma in African apes, with special reference to the gombe chimpanzees

Incidence of cranial and postcranial skeletal trauma was investigated in samples of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes, P. troglodytes schweinfurthii), lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), and bonobos (P. paniscus). The larger (adult) samples of chimpanzees (N=127 crania, 92 postcrania) and gorillas (N=136 crania, 62 postcrania) are curated at the Powell-Cotton Museum, Birchington, U.K. The bonobo collection (N=71 crania, 15 postcrania) is housed the Musée Royal de l'Afrique Centrale in Tervuren, Belgium. In addition, data were collected on the small but extremely well-documented skeletal sample from Gombe National Park (N=14 crania, 13 postcrania — including adults and adolescents). Cranial injuries, including healed fractures and bite wounds, were fairly frequent in the museum collection of chimpanzees (5.5% of individuals), but were twice as frequent in gorillas (11.0%). In the Gombe sample an even higher incidence was observed (28.6% of individuals). Bonobos, however, showed the lowest incidence of cranial trauma found among any of the African ape samples (1.4% of individuals). Postcranial trauma, documented most clearly by healed fractures, was seen in 21.7% of the Powell-Cotton chimpanzees, 30.8% of Gombe chimpanzees, 17.7% of gorillas, and in 13.3% of bonobos. Most of these lesions were found in the upper appendage. Nevertheless, highly debilitating healed fractures of the femur were also noted, most frequently and severe in female gorillas. The pattern of injuries suggests serious risks of falling in all free-ranging African apes, but also (in chimpanzees and gorillas) considerable risk from interindividual aggression, especially for males.     

Life stresses of slavery

Skeletal evidence exists for life stresses of 120 Black individuals from 25 sites in Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. Periods for statistical comparison are eighteenth century, 1690-1770; Catoctin Furnace, Maryland industrial slaves, 1790-ca.1820; 1800-ca.1860, nineteenth century; and a twentieth-century Black sample compiled from forensic (accidental deaths) cases. From these archaeological sources, skeletal age at death shifts from 36 years, female, and 30 years, male in eighteenth century (N = 29) to 34.8, female, and 36.3, male in nineteenth century (N = 56). Catoctin Furnace slaves' longevity may reflect special conditions for skilled males (34.6 years, female; 41.2 years, male (N = 16). Nutritional stresses are indicated by dental lesions, hypoplasias, stature, and skull base height and pelvic brim index. Occupational stress occurs in some adolescents and in many adults as exaggerated development of lifting muscles (deltoid and pectoral crests) and early vertebral and shoulder breakdown. Lead content of bone may reflect site of occupation. The most common pathology is anemia or sicklemia; parietal depressions and ulna fractures ("parry") indicate violence-related trauma.     

Paleopathology in an Iroquoian ossuary, with special reference to tuberculosis

Pathological skeletal remains from the Uxbridge Ossuary (1490 +/- 80 A.D., N = 457) are classified into four broad categories: trauma, congenital disability, tumor, and infection. Traumatic injuries are relatively common (fractures in 5-9.4% of total), considering the date and subsistence pattern of the population. Congenital disabilities and tumors are rare, affecting approximately 2% of the population. Nonspecific periosteitis and osteitis affect 5% of the sample. By far the most common pathological skeletal changes are lytic lesions leading to cavitation of cancellous bone, especially in the lower vertebral and sacro-iliac regions. It is argued that the changes seen and their distribution are most consistent with a diagnosis of tuberculosis. Applying clinical observations regarding bone involvement, it is estimated that a minimum of 26 skeletons were affected. This in turn indicates a very high population tuberculosis incidence. The Uxbridge sample is neither the only nor the earliest Iroquoian ossuary to display apparent tuberculosis (Hartney 1981). The common presence of this disease in some communities and its low incidence in others are discussed in the context of the epidemic wave phenomenon. There is strong evidence for warfare at Uxbridge, and this warfare may have produced crowding, poor hygiene and diet, such that the disease could flourish.     

Biocultural interpretations of trauma in two prehistoric Pacific Island populations from Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands

Two Pacific Island skeletal samples originating from the inland site of Nebira, Papua New Guinea (1230–1650) and a coastal site on the small island of Taumako, Solomon Islands (1530–1698) were examined for evidence of skeletal trauma using a biocultural approach. The types of trauma identified were cranial trauma, postcranial fractures, and piercing and sharp force trauma. Both samples exhibit trauma (Nebira, n = 9/28, 32.1%; Taumako, n = 17/133, 12.8%). Postcranial fractures are significantly higher in males from Nebira (Fisher Exact P value = 0.025). The prevalence of cranial trauma (n = 6/28, 21.4%) is significantly higher in Nebira individuals (Fisher Exact P value = 0.007). There is no conclusive evidence of piercing trauma at Nebira unlike Taumako, which has four individuals with evidence of piercing or sharp force trauma. Both samples show evidence of interpersonal violence and warfare. The results suggest the environment may have contributed to the pattern of trauma at these sites. These patterns are discussed within their cultural and environmental contexts. Am J Phys Anthropol 142:509–518, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Fractures in late medieval skeletal populations from Serbia

Bone fractures were analyzed from skeletal remains of 861 adult individuals from six cemeteries dating to the Late Medieval period in Serbia. Results of the study were compared to other cemetery populations (635 individual skeletons) of the same date and region in an attempt to understand fracture patterns. The association of types of fractures and their prevalence with sex, age at death, cemetery site, and information deriving from historical sources are discussed. Results showed that the long bone fracture frequency was 0.7%, and the majority of the fractures were the result of direct force. This rate is similar to some studies of contemporary British skeletal samples. However, it is much lower than for some other Old World sites. Cranial vault fractures had a rate of 6.7%, and of the facial skeleton, 1.3%; the frontal bone was the most affected of bones of the cranial vault. Injuries were more common on the upper extremities (0.8%) compared to the lower (0.6%). However, the fibula was the most fractured bone (2.8%), followed by the ulna (2.4%). This pattern is similar to three of six Late Medieval urban sites in Britain. These findings suggest that this rural community was exposed to a low risk of trauma, probably related mostly to accidents sustained during farming, and rarely to interpersonal violence.     

Bone fractures as indicators of intentional violence in the eastern adriatic from the antique to the late medieval period (2nd-16th century AD)

To test the historically documented hypothesis of a general increase in deliberate violence in the eastern Adriatic from the antique (AN; 2nd–6th c.) through the early medieval (EM; 7th–11th c.) to the late‐medieval period (LM; 12th–16th c.), an analysis of the frequency and patterning of bone trauma was conducted in three skeletal series from these time periods. A total of 1,125 adult skeletons—346 from the AN, 313 from the EM, and 466 from the LM series—were analyzed. To differentiate between intentional violence and accidental injuries, data for trauma frequencies were collected for the complete skeleton, individual long bones, and the craniofacial region as well as by type of injury (perimortem vs. antemortem). The results of our analyses show a significant temporal increase in total fracture frequencies when calculated by skeleton as well as of individuals exhibiting one skeletal indicator of deliberate violence (sharp force lesions, craniofacial injuries, “parry” fractures, or perimortem trauma). No significant temporal increases were, however, noted in the frequencies of craniofacial trauma, “parry” fractures, perimortem injuries, or of individuals exhibiting multiple skeletal indicators of intentional violence. Cumulatively, these data suggest that the temporal increase in total fracture frequencies recorded in the eastern Adriatic was caused by a combination of factors that included not only an increase of intentional violence but also a significant change in lifestyle that accompanied the transition from a relatively affluent AN urban lifestyle to a more primitive rural medieval way of life. Am J Phys Anthropol 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Traumatic, degenerative, and developmental lesions in wolves and coyotes from Saskatchewan.

A retrospective review was done of traumatic and osseous lesions in 241 wolves (Canis lupus) and 316 coyotes (Canis latrans) necropsied at the University of Saskatchewan between 1971 and 1990. Most lesions were the result of interspecific conflict. The most frequently occurring lesion in wolves was fracture of one or more bones, primarily ribs. Lesions were healed in most cases and appeared to be compatible with injuries caused by prey animals. One wolf, found dead, died as a result of thoracic trauma. Limb and skull fractures were less common. Fractures were uncommon in coyotes. The most frequent injuries in coyotes were related to gunshot wounds. Four coyotes had been killed but not eaten by wolves. One wolf had been killed and another attacked by wolves. Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) quills contributed to the death of a wolf and two coyotes. Degenerative joint disease, involving the spinal column and limb joints, was found in a few individuals of both species. A coyote had severe anomalies of the spinal column and a wolf had anomalous external genitalia.     

An assessment of health and disease in the prehistoric inhabitants of the Mariana Islands

Using a variety of skeletal and dental stress indicators, an assessment of the health and disease of the indigenous inhabitants of the Mariana Islands, the Chamorro, is made. The major hypothesis to be tested is that the Chamorro were relatively healthy and that deviations from the expected, as well as inter-island variation, may reflect environmental, ecological, and cultural differences. The major skeletal series surveyed include sites on Guam (N = 247 individuals), Rota (N = 14), Tinian (N = 20), and Saipan (N = 102). The majority of the specimens are from the transitional pre-Latte (AD 1–1000) and Latte (AD 1000–1521) periods. These data derive primarily from unpublished osteological reports. The indicators of health and disease surveyed include mortality and paleodemographic data, stature, dental paleopathology, cribra orbitalia, limb bone fractures, degenerative osteoarthritis, and infectious disease (including treponemal infection). Where appropriate, tests of significance are calculated to determine the presence of any patterning in the differences observed within and between the skeletal series. Information recorded in prehistoric Hawaiians provides a standard for external comparisons. Several of the larger skeletal series surveyed have paleodemographic features that are consistent with long-term cemetery populations. Females and subadults are typically underrepresented. Most subadult deaths occur in the 2–5 year age interval. Life expectancy at birth ranges from 26.4 to 33.7 years. A healthy fertility rate is indicated for these series. The prehistoric inhabitants of the Mariana Islands were relatively tall, exceeding living Chamorros measured in the early part of the present century. The greater prevalence of developmental defects in the enamel suggests that the Chamorro were exposed to more stress than prehistoric Hawaiians. The low frequency of cribra orbitalia further indicates iron deficiency anemia was not a problem. There are generally low frequencies of dental pathology in the remains from the Mariana Islands. Betel-nut staining is relatively common in all series which may help to explain the relatively low prevalence of dental pathology. Healed limb bone fractures are rare in these skeletal series; the frequency and patterns of fractures suggest accidental injury as the main cause. Greater physical demands involving the lower back region are indicated by a high frequency of spondylolysis, or stress fracture in the lumbar vertebrae in the Chamorro. Likewise, advanced degenerative bone changes, while of low occurrence, are significantly greater in the Chamorro than Hawaiians. The prevalence of skeletal and dental indicators of stress was generally higher in the smaller islands of the Marianas chain (e.g., Rota), islands with fewer resources to buffer environmental catastrophe. Bony changes suggestive of treponemal (probably yaws) disease are common in most of these Marianas Islands skeletal series. Am J Phys Anthropol 104:315–342, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Bone and Joint Disorders in Wild Japanese Macaques from Nagano Prefecture,Japan

I studied bone and joint disorders in wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata) in order to discern some aspects of their life history from the skeletal material. The specimens comprise 107 nearly complete skeletons of subadults and adults that were killed as crop-raiding monkeys between 1997 and 1998 in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. The most frequent disorder is angular deformity due to fractures: 80 healed fractures in 31 of 52 males and 71 healed fractures in 26 of 55 females. Secondary osteoarthritis due to fractures is rare. Two males have osteochondritis dissecans bilaterally on the posterior surface of the lateral femoral condyles. Degenerative changes are common in the aged individuals. Fractures of the trunk—clavicle, scapula, vertebrae, ribs or hip—are frequent in the males. Contrarily, the majority of fractures in females are in the hands and feet. While most fractures in males appear to have occurred during adulthood, those in females occurred during childhood and senescence. Interindividual violence should not be regarded as a principal cause for fractures in males and females because there is no bite wound except perhaps for one case of an amputated digit. Fractures of the trunk in males were probably caused by impact forces against their shoulders or hips or both caused by rolling down a steep slope or falling out of trees, perhaps during intertroop transfers.     

Patterns of fractures in accidental and non-accidental injury in children: a comparative study.

The incidence and pattern of fractures in children who had been abused were compared with those of fractures sustained by children of similar ages in whom abuse had been excluded. From 1976 to 1982 there were 35 children with fractures resulting from child abuse, and all were aged under 5. Of the 826 children in the control group, seen from January to June 1981, 85% were aged over 5. Abused children were much more likely to have multiple fractures (p less than 0.001) and bruising of the head and neck (p less than 0.001). Fractures of the ribs were common in children who had been abused, and their presence, in the absence of major chest trauma, strongly suggested that abuse was occurring. Injuries to the long bones were invariably spiral or oblique fractures or subperiosteal new bone formation--both "gripping or twisting" injuries. Spiral fracture of the humeral shaft was significantly more common (p less than 0.001) in the group of abused children. Classic metaphyseal chip fractures were uncommon. One child in eight aged under 18 months who sustains a fracture may be a victim of child abuse.     

A current 10-year retrospective survey of 199 surgically treated orbital floor fractures in a nonurban tertiary care center.

This study characterizes the surgically treated patient population suffering from orbital floor fractures by use of current data from a large series consisting of 199 cases taken from a nonurban setting. Data were gathered through a retrospective chart review of patients surgically treated for orbital floor fractures at the University of Michigan Health System, collected over a 10-year period. Data regarding patient demographics, signs and symptoms of presentation, cause of injury, nature of injury, associated facial fractures, ocular injury, and associated nonfacial skeleton trauma were collected. In total, there were 199 cases of orbital floor fractures among 189 patients. Male patients outnumbered female patients by a 2:1 ratio and were found to engage in a wider range of behaviors that resulted in orbital floor fractures. Motor vehicle accidents were the leading cause of orbital floor fractures, followed by physical assault and sports-related mechanisms. The ratio of impure to pure orbital floor fracture was 3:1. The most common signs and symptoms associated with orbital floor fractures, in descending order, were periorbital ecchymosis, diplopia, subconjunctival hemorrhage, and enophthalmos. Associated facial fractures were found in 77.2 percent of patients, the most prevalent of which was the zygoma-malar fracture. Serious ocular injury occurred in 19.6 percent of patients, with globe rupture being the most prevalent, accounting for 40.5 percent of those injuries. There was a 38.1 percent occurrence of associated nonfacial skeletal trauma; skull fracture and intracranial injury were the most prevalent manifestations. Associated cervical-spine fractures were rare (0.5 percent). Statistical examination, using odds ratios and chi-squared analysis, demonstrated significant associations that have not previously been reported. Impure and pure orbital floor fractures revealed striking differences in several demographic aspects, including mechanism of injury, signs and symptoms of presentation, spectrum of associated trauma, and the severity of concomitant trauma.     

Paleoepidemiology of a central California prehistoric population from Ca-Ala-329: II. Degenerative disease

Degenerative lesions are scored and frequencies of involvement are computed for a skeletal collection from Ca-Ala-329, a prehistoric site on the southeastern side of San Francisco Bay, dating from 500 A.D. up to European contact. A large earthmound site, excavations conducted there by San Jose State University retrieved close to 300 burials. For this epidemiological analysis, reasonably complete and aged skeletons representing 77 adult females and 90 adult males are available. Degenerative changes are scored macroscopically in an ordinal fashion for the large fibro-cartilagenous joints between adjacent vertebral bodies (vertebral osteophytosis) as well as the small apophyseal articulations of the spine. In addition, in the peripheral skeleton degenerative changes are scored in the temporo-mandibular, shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee joints as well as the small articulations of the hands and feet. The most common degenerative changes in the spine are seen between the vertebral bodies of the lower lumbar region. In the peripheral skeleton the highest involvement of degenerative disease is seen in the hands and feet. Compared to other relevant osteological samples, this group of hunting-gathering California Indians shows more degenerative changes than settled agriculturists (from Pecos Pueblo, New Mexico) but substantially less frequent involvement than in arctic hunters (Alaskan Eskimos).     

Broken ribs: Paleopathological analysis of costal fractures in the human identified skeletal collection from the Museu Bocage,Lisbon, Portugal (late 19th to middle 20th centuries)

Although rarely reported in the anthropological literature, rib fractures are commonly found during the analysis of human skeletal remains of past and modern populations. This lack of published data precludes comparison between studies and restricts an accurate understanding either of the mechanisms involved in thoracic injuries or their impact on past societies. The present study aimed: 1) to report rib fracture prevalence in 197 individuals, 109 males, and 88 females, with ages at death ranging from 13 to 88 years old, from the Human Identified Skeletal Collection, Museu Bocage, Portugal (late 19th‐middle 20th centuries); 2) to test the hypothesis that a higher prevalence of rib stress fractures existed in the 133 individuals who died from respiratory diseases, in a period before antibiotics. The macroscopic analysis revealed 23.9% (n = 47) of individuals with broken ribs. 2.6% (n = 124) out of 4,726 ribs observed were affected. Males presented more rib fractures, and a significantly higher prevalence was noted for older individuals. Fractures were more frequently unilateral (n = 34), left sided (n = 19) and mainly located on the shaft of ribs from the middle thoracic wall. Nineteen individuals presented adjacent fractured ribs. Individuals who died from pulmonary diseases were not preferentially affected. However, a higher mean rate of fractures was found in those who died from pneumonia, a scenario still common nowadays. Since rib involvement in chest wall injury and its related outcomes are important issues both for paleopathology and forensic anthropology, further investigations are warranted. Am J Phys Anthropol 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Warfare related trauma at Orendorf, a middle Mississippian site in west-central Illinois

Skeletal evidence of nonritual interpersonal trauma in the central Illinois valley is currently limited to the terminal prehistoric period in the region. Sixteen percent of the entire Norris Farms Oneota skeletal sample died violently, presumably because they intruded upon small groups of Mississippians who had not yet abandoned the region. Archaeological evidence of palisades, however, suggests that the region was embroiled in conflict before the Oneota arrived though the skeletal evidence supporting more than ritualized or geographically sporadic cases of scalping or embedded projectiles has been elusive. This study examines the frequency and nature of interpersonal trauma at Orendorf, a Middle Mississippian (AD 1150-1250) site at the northern periphery of the region. Nine percent (N = 25) of all 268 individuals documented at Orendorf suffered warfare-related trauma, including 13 cases of scalping, six instances of decapitation, five individuals with healed cranial blunt force trauma, three projectile point impacts, and eight cases of projectile injuries inferred by the burial context. All of the traumatized individuals were at or above the age of 15 years and males and females were victimized equally. The trauma rate among adults is 16%, which is less than that of the Norris Farms Oneota (34%) but higher than other Mississippian groups in the Southeast. The nature of the injuries is more consistent with attacks by outsiders than codified or ritualized intragroup violence.     

Frequency and patterning of bone trauma in the late medieval population (13th-16th century) from Dugopolje, southern Croatia

The aim of this paper is to test the hypothesis of an increased level of interpersonal violence in Dugopolje during the late medieval period as testified by written sources. In order to accomplish this, an analysis and comparison of frequencies and patterning of long bone and craniofacial fractures between sex and age categories in the Dugopolje skeletal sample was performed. In total 209 excellently preserved adult skeletons were analysed: 111 males and 98 females. The total long bone fracture frequency is 1.5% (29/1910) with a significantly higher frequency in males compared to females. Most of the long bone injuries occurred as a result of accidents, probably due to rugged mountainous terrain, while a certain portion of trauma resulted from deliberate violence. Significantly higher fracture frequencies in males could be a result of a strict sexual division of labour where males performed more physically demanding and risky tasks, as witnessed by historical sources. 26 out of 119 complete adult crania (21.8%) exhibit skeletal trauma with significantly higher frequencies in males. Perimortem trauma was observed in one individual while antemortem healed sharp force lesions were registered in five individuals (all males). The predominance of frontal craniofacial injuries, as well as the presence ofperimortem trauma and sharp force lesions, suggests the presence of deliberate violence in this community. Although the indicators of deliberate violence were recorded predominantly in males, suggesting that intentional violence in Dugopolje was exclusively males' prerogative, the presence of nasal fracture in a female skeleton might point to a male towards female violence. Presented bioarchaeological data are in accordance with the written documents thus corroborating the claims of an increased level of deliberate interpersonal violence in the late medieval population from Dugopolje.     

Fractures on the chest radiograph in detection of alcoholic liver disease.

The presence of fractures seen on routine chest radiography was assessed in patients with liver disease to see whether it might provide a useful marker of alcoholism. Chest radiographs taken at the time of liver biopsy were examined in 149 patients--72 with alcoholic liver disease (32 (44%) cirrhotic) and 77 with various forms of non-alcoholic liver disease (15 (19 . 5%) cirrhotic)--and in 149 controls. Fractures (85 rib, two clavicular) were much more common in patients with alcoholic liver disease (20 subjects; 28%) than in patients with non-alcoholic liver disease (1; 1 . 3%) or controls 10; 6 . 7%). In alcoholic liver disease rib fractures were significantly more likely to be bilateral or multiple (more than two) or both (p less than 0 . 01). Of patients with alcoholic liver disease, those with fractures were significantly older than those without, but there was no difference in sex, social class, the proportion with cirrhosis, or the proportion known to be alcoholic at the time of the radiograph. In liver disease fractures on the chest radiograph diagnosed alcoholism with 95% specificity and 28% sensitivity. These often overlooked or ignored findings in the chest radiograph may have a wider role in the detection of alcoholism.     

Violence and weapon‐related trauma at Puruchuco‐Huaquerones,Peru

Conquest of indigenous peoples in North America is understood primarily through ethnohistorical documents, archaeological evidence, and osteological analyses. However, in the Central Andes, the colonial enterprise and its effects are understood only from postcontact historical and ethnohistorical sources. Few archaeological and bioarchaeological studies have investigated Spanish Conquest and colonialism in the Andean region [for exceptions see Klaus and Tam: Am J Phys Anthropol 138 (2009) 356–368; Wernke, in press ; and Quilter, in press ]. Here we describe bioarchaeological evidence of violence from the cemeteries of Huaquerones and 57AS03 within the archaeological zone of Puruchuco‐Huaquerones, Peru (circa A.D. 1470–1540). A total of 258 individuals greater than 15 years of age were analyzed for evidence of traumatic injuries. Individuals were examined macroscopically and evidence of traumatic injuries was analyzed according to the skeletal element involved, the location of the injury on the skeletal element, and any additional complications of the injury. This study examines and compares the evidence of perimortem injuries on skeletonized individuals from the two cemeteries and focuses specifically on the interpretation of weapon‐related perimortem injuries. Evidence of perimortem trauma is present in both cemeteries (18.6%, 48/258); however, the frequency of injuries in 57AS03 is greater than that in Huaquerones (25.0% vs. 13.0%). Several injuries from 57AS03 are consistent with documented cases of injuries from firearms and 16th Century European weapons. We believe that the nature and high frequency of perimortem trauma at 57AS03 provide evidence of the violence that occurred with Spanish Conquest of the Inca Empire. Am J Phys Anthropol 142:636–649, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Cranial trauma in iron age Samnite agriculturists, Alfedena, Italy: implications for biocultural and economic stress

The Samnites are an Iron Age protohistoric people from the central region of Italy. The skeletal remains are from the Alfedena necropolis, 6th through 5th centuries B.C. Macchiarelli et al. (Antropologia Contemporanea 4 (1981) 239-243) were the first to report on cranial trauma for this population, presenting four cases with extreme injuries. We re-examined this well documented skeletal population for additional examples of trauma. Previously unexamined remains from Alfedena, excavated at the turn of the 20th century, are also included in our analysis (Mariani. 1901. "Aufidena", ricerche archeologiche e storiche del Sannio settentrionale. Roma: Acc Naz Dei Lincei). Of the 209 adult crania examined, 12.9% of them exhibited trauma. Analysis of location and frequency of cranial trauma revealed that cranial injuries to the head appear to originate from all directions. The high rate of cranial trauma underscores the violent circumstances experienced during the Iron Age protohistoric period of central Italy. Males are much more likely to exhibit cranial injury than females (P = 0.009). We conclude that the injuries received by Samnite male farmer-warriors occurred while defending pastoral-agricultural resources. Trauma rates are similar for some Iron Age populations and not for others. Behavior associated with violence during the Iron Age period can not be generalized for all populations found in Italy.     

Vertebral end-plate fractures as a result of high rate pressure loading in the nucleus of the young adult porcine spine

In a healthy spine, end-plate fractures occur from excessive pressurization of the intervening nucleus. Younger spines are most susceptible to such type of injury due to the highly hydraulic nature of their intervertebral discs. The purpose of this paper was to confirm this fracture mechanism of the healthy spine through the pressurization of the nucleus in the absence of external compressive loading. Sixteen functional porcine spine units were dissected and both injection and pressure transducer needles were inserted into the nucleus of the intervertebral disc. Hydraulic fluid was rapidly injected into the nucleus until failure occurred. Peak pressure and rate of pressure development were monitored. Spine units were dissected to determine the type and location of fracture. Fifteen of the 16 spine units fractured (the remaining unit had a degenerated disc). Of the 15 fractures, 13 occurred at the posterior margin of the end-plate along the lines of the growth plates. A slightly exponential relationship was found between peak pressure and its rate of development (R(2) = 0.544). Also, in each of the growth-plate fractured specimens, nuclear material was forcefully emitted, during fracture, from the intervertebral disc into the vertebral foramen. The posterior end-plate fractures produced here are similar to those often seen in young adult humans. This provides insight into a mechanism of fracture development through pressurization of the nucleus that might be seen in older adolescents and younger adults during athletic events or mild trauma.