Characterizing of fine particulate matter (PM1) on the platforms and outdoor areas of underground and surface subway stations

A campaign was conducted to assess the PM₁ concentration and elemental composition on the platforms and adjacent outdoor areas of an underground subway station (Imam Khomeini) and a surface subway station (Sadeghiye) in Tehran from June 2014 to November 2014. The respective mean concentrations of PM₁ on the platforms and in the outdoor areas of Imam Khomeini station were 42.04 and 30.92 µg/m³ and for Sadeghiye station 31.42 and 26.02 µg/m³. Statistical analyses demonstrated that the platforms of the Imam Khomeini and Sadeghiye stations were influenced by the adjacent ambient air of these stations (p < 0.05). PM₁ was found to be highly enriched with Fe on the platforms of metro systems, which were more frequently encountered in the Imam Khomeini station than the Sadeghiye station as 41.06% and 37.73% of the total PM₁ mass respectively. Minor elements, particularly Ba, Pb, Cr, Cu, Ni, Mn, Ti, V, and Zn, were elevated for the platform of Imam Khomeini and, to a lesser degree, the platform of Sadeghiye stations, which may be due to abrasion processes between rail tracks, wheels, and brake pads.     

Aerobiological study in the Mexico City subway system

Monitoring campaigns in two different seasons were carried out at two underground stations (Tacubaya and Azcapotzalco) of the subway of Mexico City, in order to assess airborne bacterial and fungi concentrations, as well as their relationship with several factors, such as depth of the station, sampling site, temperature, and relative humidity. Sixteen sampling sites were selected according to the depth of the lines and the transit of passengers in the corridors, concourses, and platforms. In addition, samples were also collected in the carriages when they were in movement. Outdoor samples were taken at the two stations for comparison. Two-stage multi-orifice cascade impactors were used to collect aerobiological particles, and with the aid of macroscopic and microscopic characterization were found 57 fungi and 61 bacteria colonies. Outdoor bacteria concentrations ranged from 1 to 68 CFU m^?3, while fungi concentrations varied from 6 to 80 CFU m^?3. The indoor concentration levels of bacteria and fungi ranged from 1 to 484 CFU m^?3 and from 51 to 715 CFU m^?3, respectively. Fungi and bacteria indoor concentrations in the subway were higher than outdoor, up to 8 times. Most of bacteria were identified as Gram-positive nonsporulating short bacillus, while the most abundant fungi genera identified were Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Alternaria in that order of frequency. Statistical analysis showed significant differences between the stations and the lines of different depths, showing a greater microorganisms’ concentration with a greater depth. Although bacteria and fungi concentrations were higher in the spring than in winter, this difference was not significant. Even if indoor microbiological pollution in underground stations was higher than outdoor, the concentrations found in this study were lower than indoor air international standards.     

Comparison of dichloran rose bengal chloramphenicol and Sabouraud dextrose agar with cycloheximide and chloramphenicol for airborne mold sampling

The more the mold species isolated on a culture medium, the more the sampling environment is represented accurately. According to the sampling purpose, it is crucial to use the best culture medium for mold. However, no study is available regarding the comparison of dichloran rose bengal chloramphenicol (DRBC) and Sabouraud dextrose agar with cycloheximide and chloramphenicol (SDA-CHX-CHL) culture media in terms of their application for airborne sampling, isolation, and identification of fungi. Airborne mold samples were impacted onto both DRBC and SDA-CHX-CHL, simultaneously using single-stage Andersen sampler. The limit of detection (LOD) value for airborne mold count was 7 CFU m^?3 (1 colony growth on the Petri dish). The total mold counts (TMC) ranged between <7 and 504 CFU m^?3 (med 56 CFU m^?3) and <7 and 1218 CFU m^?3 (med 259 CFU m^?3), collected on SDA-CHX-CHL and DRBC, respectively. Significantly higher TMC were observed on DRBC than on SDA regardless of the sampling environment (i.e, indoor or outdoor) (p < 0.05). Among the most predominant mold genera, observation frequencies of Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp. on both culture media were found to be more than 70%. Observation frequencies of Cladosporium spp., Alternaria spp., and yeast were found to be higher in samples collected on DRBC than those on SDA-CHX-CHL. Finally, DRBC was found to be superior to SDA in terms of both number of colonies and number of genera isolated from the air.     

Airborne Fungal Colony-Forming Units in Outdoor and Indoor Environments in Yokohama,Japan

The fungal concentration and flora in indoor and outdoor air in Yokohama, Japan were analyzed with a Reuter centrifugal air sampler and dichloran 18% glycerol agar (DG18), and compared with the levels assessed with potato dextrose agar (PDA). The number of fungal colony-forming units (CFU) in outdoor air was < 13–2750/m³; Cladosporium spp. predominated, followed by Alternaria spp. and Penicillium spp. The fungal concentration in outdoor air peaked in September. The concentrations of fungi in outdoor air (n = 288) were significantly correlated with the maximum temperature of the day, minimum temperature of the day, average temperature of the day, average velocity of wind of the day, average temperature of the month, average relative humidity of the month and precipitation of the month. In indoor air, the fungal CFU was < 13–3750/m³. Cladosporium spp. predominated, followed by the xerophilic fungi such as the Aspergillus restrictus group, Wallemia sebi, the A. glaucus group, and Penicillium spp. The fungal concentration in indoor air peaked in October. The concentrations of fungi in indoor air (n = 288) were significantly correlated with the indoor temperature, indoor relative humidity and the outdoor climatic factors mentioned above, except for the average velocity of wind of the day. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Phenotypic and genotypic diversity of airborne fungal spores in Demänovská Ice Cave (Low Tatras,Slovakia)

This paper is the first aero-mycological report from Demänovská Ice Cave. Fungal spores were sampled from the internal and external air of the cave in June, 2014, using the impact method with a microbiological air sampler. Airborne fungi cultured on PDA medium were identified using a combination of classical phenotypic and molecular methods. Altogether, the presence of 18 different fungal spores, belonging to 3 phyla, 9 orders and 14 genera, was detected in the air of the cave. All of them were isolated from the indoor samples, and only 9 were obtained from the outdoor samples. Overall, airborne fungal spores belonging to the genus Cladosporium dominated in this study. However, the spores of Trametes hirsuta were most commonly found in the indoor air samples of the cave and the spores of C. herbarum in the outdoor air samples. On the other hand, the spores of Alternaria abundans, Arthrinium kogelbergense, Cryptococcus curvatus, Discosia sp., Fomes fomentarius, Microdochium seminicola and T. hirsuta were discovered for the first time in the air of natural and artificial underground sites. The external air of the cave contains more culturable airborne fungal spores (755 colony-forming units (CFU) per 1 m³ of air) than the internal air (from 47 to 273 CFU in 1 m³), and these levels of airborne spore concentration do not pose a threat to the health of tourists. Probably, the specific microclimate in the cave, including the constant presence of ice caps and low temperature, as well as the location and surrounding environment, contributes to the unique species composition of aeromycota and their spores in the cave. Thus, aero-mycological monitoring of underground sites seems to be very important for their ecosystems, and it may help reduce the risk of fungal infections in humans and other mammals that may arise in particular due to climate change.     

Site-related and seasonal variation of bioaerosol emission in an indoor wastewater treatment station: level,characteristics of particle size,and microbial structure

The emission of the airborne bacteria and fungi from an indoor wastewater treatment station adopting an integrated oxidation ditch with a vertical circle was investigated. Microbial samples were collected by the six-stage viable Andersen cascade impactor, and the samples were collected in triplicate in each sampling site per season. Culture-based method was applied to determine the concentrations of the airborne bacteria and fungi, while the cloning/sequencing method was used to characterize the genetic structure and community diversity of airborne bacteria. The highest concentrations of airborne bacteria (4155 ± 550 CFU/m³) and fungi (883 ± 150 CFU/m³) were obtained in June (summer). The lowest concentration of bacteria (1458 ± 434 CFU/m³) was determined in January (winter), and the lowest concentration of fungi (169 ± 40 CFU/m³) was found in March (spring), respectively. The particle size distribution analysis showed that most culturable bacteria obtained in all the sampling sites were in the particle size range of 1.1–4.7 µm. Most culturable fungi had particle sizes in the range 1.1–3.3 µm. Microbial population analysis showed that Bacillus sp., Acinetobacter sp., and Lysinibacillus were the main groups obtained in S1. Enterobacter was the dominant group in sampling site S2. Both the concentrations and particle size distribution of the bioaerosols in the enclosed space presented a seasonal and site-related variation. Concentration and richness of microorganisms in bioaerosols in June were higher than in September and January. The particle size distribution varied between the sampling sites, and proportion of large particles was higher in S2 than in S1 because of the settlement of large particles. Pathogenic species, such as Acinetobacter lwoffii, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, and Enterobacter sp., were isolated from the bioaerosols, which could pose serious latent danger to sewage workers’ health.     

Assessment of microbial aerosol emissions in an urban wastewater treatment plant operated with activated sludge process

Wastewater that enters wastewater treatment plants contains lots of pathogenic and nonpathogenic microorganisms which can become bioaerosols during treatment processes and pose health hazard to workers and nearby residents. The emission of the bioaerosols from an urban wastewater treatment plant in spring and summer in different locations and downwind of the plant adopting an extended mechanical aeration system was investigated. Samples of bacteria and fungi were collected within 6 months at 10 selected points by an Anderson one-stage impactor. The highest concentration of bacteria (mean 1373 CFU/m³, 741–2817 CFU/m³) and fungi (mean 1384 CFU/m³, 212–1610 CFU/m³) was found in downwind of the aeration basins. Statistical analysis showed a significant relationship between concentration of bacterial bioaerosols at downwind side of the aeration basins and wind speed (p value <0.05) and temperature (p value <0.05). Also, in the spring and summer, between the number of bacteria and fungi inside the plant and outside the plant (downwind) a significant correlation was observed (p value ≤0.05). The concentrations of bacteria at a distance of 500 m downwind were much higher than those at the background (upwind) point in spring and summer. The processes of wastewater treatment especially using mechanical equipment to create turbulence can be considered as a major source of spreading airborne microorganisms to ambient air of wastewater treatment plants, and the bioaerosols can be dispersed to downwind distances affecting the nearby neighboring. Therefore, in order to decrease the bioaerosols emission, doing some course of actions such as covering the surface of aeration basins, changing the aeration methods and aeration equipment (e. g using diffuser aerator) may be effective.     

Profiles of Airborne Fungi in Buildings and Outdoor Environments in the United States

We examined 12,026 fungal air samples (9,619 indoor samples and 2,407 outdoor samples) from 1,717 buildings located across the United States; these samples were collected during indoor air quality investigations performed from 1996 to 1998. For all buildings, both indoor and outdoor air samples were collected with an Andersen N6 sampler. The culturable airborne fungal concentrations in indoor air were lower than those in outdoor air. The fungal levels were highest in the fall and summer and lowest in the winter and spring. Geographically, the highest fungal levels were found in the Southwest, Far West, and Southeast. The most common culturable airborne fungi, both indoors and outdoors and in all seasons and regions, were Cladosporium, Penicillium, nonsporulating fungi, and Aspergillus. Stachybotrys chartarum was identified in the indoor air in 6% of the buildings studied and in the outdoor air of 1% of the buildings studied. This study provides industrial hygienists, allergists, and other public health practitioners with comparative information on common culturable airborne fungi in the United States. This is the largest study of airborne indoor and outdoor fungal species and concentrations conducted with a standardized protocol to date.     

Airborne bacteria, fungi, and endotoxin levels in residential microenvironments: a case study

Limited data are currently available on the concentrations of airborne bacteria, fungi, and endotoxins in indoor environments. The levels of aerial bacteria and fungi were measured at several microenvironments within a well-ventilated residential apartment in Singapore including the living room, kitchen, bedroom, toilet, and at a workplace environment by sampling indoor air onto culture medium plates using the 6-stage Andersen sampler. Total microbial counts were determined by collecting the air samples in water with the Andersen sampler, staining the resultant extracts with a fluorescent dye, acridine orange, and counting the microbes using a fluorescent microscope. The levels of airborne endotoxins were also determined by sampling the airborne microorganisms onto 0.4?μm polycarbonate membrane filter using the MiniVol sampler at 5?l/min for 20?h with a PM_2.5 cut-off device. The aerial bacterial and fungal concentrations were found to be in the ranges of 117–2,873?CFU/m³ and 160–1,897?CFU/m³, respectively. The total microbial levels ranged from 49,000 to 218,000?microbes/m³. The predominant fungi occurring in the apartment were Aspergillus and Penicillium while the predominant bacterial strains appeared to be Staphylococcus and Micrococcus. The average indoor endotoxin level was detectable in the range of 6–39?EU/m³. The amount of ventilation and the types of human activities carried out in the indoor environment appeared to be important factors affecting the level of these airborne biological contaminants.     

The Diversity and Distribution of Fungi on Residential Surfaces

The predominant hypothesis regarding the composition of microbial assemblages in indoor environments is that fungal assemblages are structured by outdoor air with a moderate contribution by surface growth, whereas indoor bacterial assemblages represent a mixture of bacteria entered from outdoor air, shed by building inhabitants, and grown on surfaces. To test the fungal aspect of this hypothesis, we sampled fungi from three surface types likely to support growth and therefore possible contributors of fungi to indoor air: drains in kitchens and bathrooms, sills beneath condensation-prone windows, and skin of human inhabitants. Sampling was done in replicated units of a university-housing complex without reported mold problems, and sequences were analyzed using both QIIME and the new UPARSE approach to OTU-binning, to the same result. Surfaces demonstrated a mycological profile similar to that of outdoor air from the same locality, and assemblages clustered by surface type. “Weedy” genera typical of indoor air, such as Cladosporium and Cryptococcus, were abundant on sills, as were a diverse set of fungi of likely outdoor origin. Drains supported more depauperate assemblages than the other surfaces and contained thermotolerant genera such as Exophiala, Candida, and Fusarium. Most surprising was the composition detected on residents’ foreheads. In addition to harboring Malassezia, a known human commensal, skin also possessed a surprising richness of non-resident fungi, including plant pathogens such as ergot (Claviceps purperea). Overall, fungal richness across indoor surfaces was high, but based on known autecologies, most of these fungi were unlikely to be growing on surfaces. We conclude that while some endogenous fungal growth on typical household surfaces does occur, particularly on drains and skin, all residential surfaces appear – to varying degrees – to be passive collectors of airborne fungi of putative outdoor origin, a view of the origins of the indoor microbiome quite different from bacteria.     

Introducing DNA-based methods to compare fungal microbiota and concentrations in indoor,outdoor, and personal air

Inhalation of airborne fungi is known to cause respiratory illnesses such as allergies. However, the association between exposure and health outcomes remains largely unclear, in part due to lack of knowledge about fungal exposure in daily life. This study aims to introduce DNA-based methods such as high-throughput sequencing (HTS) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) to compare fungal microbiota and concentrations in indoor, outdoor, and personal air. Five sets of concurrent indoor, outdoor, and personal air samples were collected, each with duration of 4 days. Sequencing analysis revealed greater species richness in personal than indoor air for four out of the five sets, indicating that people are exposed to outdoor species that are not in indoor air. The personal–indoor (P/I) and personal–outdoor (P/O) ratios of total fungi were 1.2 and 0.15, respectively, suggesting that personal exposure to total fungi is better represented by indoor than outdoor concentrations. However, the ratios were taxon dependent, highlighting the complexity of generalizing personal exposure to the diverse kingdom Fungi. These results demonstrate that the HTS/qPCR method is useful for assessing taxon-specific fungal exposure, which might be difficult to achieve effectively using conventional, non-DNA-based techniques.     

An assessment of the air quality in indoor and outdoor air with reference to fungal spores and pollen grains in four working environments in Kerala, India

Qualitative and quantitative analyses of airborne fungal spores and pollen grains in four working environments (market, saw mill, poultry and cow sheds) in Thiruvananthapuram, the capital city of Kerala, India, were carried out for 2 years using Burkard Personal Slide Sampler and Andersen Two-Stage Sampler. Total spore concentration in these sites was always higher in indoor environments than in outdoor environments. Difference in concentration was not statistically significant in any of these work places except in saw mill (t test, p < 0.05). The highest spore concentration was recorded here followed by market, poultry and cow sheds. A total of 32 fungal spore types from indoor environments and 33 spore types from outdoor environments were recorded. Of them, 16 spore types were common to all the sites. Ameropsores, Cladosporium, other basidiospores, Ganoderma and Nigrospora were the dominant spore types in both indoor and outdoor environments. A total of 27 species of viable fungi from indoor and 24 species from outdoor environments were identified. Penicillium citrinum, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger were the most dominant viable fungi isolated. In contrast, total pollen concentration was always higher in outdoor environments than in indoor environments. Twenty-nine pollen types from indoor and 32 pollen types from outdoor were captured during the sampling. Poaceae, Cocos, Artocarpus, Amaranthus/Chenopodium and Tridax were the common and dominant pollen types observed in all the sites. Peak spore and pollen incidence were recorded during the late rainy and dry seasons (October–February) in both indoor and outdoor environments. The study revealed high prevalence of predominantly allergenic fungal spores and pollen grains in all the four work places. Workers/visitors are at potential risk of susceptibility to respiratory/allergic disorders.     

The abundance of urban endotoxins as measured with an impinger-based sampling strategy

Endotoxins are components of Gram-negative bacteria with inherently high pro-inflammatory potential. In an urban environment, airborne endotoxins may associate with pollutants such as particulate matter, increasing the severity of the immune response by acting as a natural adjuvant to augment inflammatory respiratory disease development. Here, we present a closer look at outdoor urban endotoxins by applying a microbial-targeted collection strategy. Results from 87 samples distributed throughout the city of Antwerp ranged from 0.45 to 93.71 EU/m³, with a geometric mean of 4.49 EU/m³ and 95% confidence interval of 3.53–5.71 EU/m³. Sample collection was also coupled with the use of a Coulter counter, for which the particle count (2.5–10 μm/m³) showed a significant correlation with endotoxin concentration (R²?=?0.24; p?<?0.0001; n?=?64). In addition, the analysis of the cultivable bacterial colony-forming units on Reasoner’s 2A agar (expressed CFU/m³) showed to be a good indicator for airborne endotoxins (R²?=?0.57; p?<?0.0001; n?=?58). Moreover, identification of dominant bacterial colonies on these culture plates gave some indications on potential sources of these urban outdoor bacteria and endotoxins.     

Triazole Susceptibilities in Thermotolerant Fungal Isolates from Outdoor Air in the Seoul Capital Area in South Korea

Emerging fungi resistant to triazoles are a concern because of the increased use of medical triazoles and exposure to agricultural triazoles. However, little is known about the levels of triazole susceptibility in outdoor airborne fungi making it difficult to assess the risks of inhalation exposure to airborne, antifungal-resistant fungi. This study examined triazole susceptibilities of the airborne thermotolerant fungi isolated from the ambient air of the Seoul Capital Area of South Korea. We used impactor air sampling with triazole-containing nutrient agar plates as the collection substrates to screen for airborne fungal isolates based on their triazole susceptibilities. This study estimated that 0.17% of all the culturable fungi belong to the pathogenic thermotolerant taxa, among which each isolate of Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus tubingensis showed a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 2 μg/mL or greater for itraconazole. Their concentration in air was 0.4 CFU/m³. Seven human pathogenic Paecilomyces variotii isolates had MICs of 32 μg/mL or greater and lower than 2 μg/mL for the agricultural fungicide tebuconazole and the medical triazole itraconazole, respectively. Though the concentration was low, our results confirm the presence of airborne fungi with high MICs for itraconazole in ambient air. Inhalation is an important exposure route because people inhale more than 10 m³ of air each day. Vigilance is preferred over monitoring for the emergence of triazole-resistant fungal pathogens in ambient outdoor air.     

Possible cause of allergy for the librarians: books manipulation and ventilation as sources of fungus spores spreading

The objective of this study was to investigate the airborne viable spore concentrations and identify the fungal species in all indoor spaces from the lending library at the Technical University “Gheorghe Asachi” Iaşi, Romania. Samples were collected using the settle plate method and swab samples from PC cooler fan grids as well as from the wall in it’s vicinity and from paper/wood fragments. There were no air conditioning systems in the library rooms. The heating systems were standard with an environmental temperature of 20°C in winter, except for the storage area of old/rare books stacks II, where the temperature was below 15°C and the humidity was very high due to water infiltrations in the walls and poor maintenance. More than 296 fungal colonies from over 78 samples were identified, enumerated, and reported. Indoor airborne fungal spore deposition rates were within the range of 419–1,677 CFU/m², with the predominance of genera being Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., Cladosporium spp., Alternaria spp. and Chaetomium spp. Approximately ten fungal colonies could not be identified. The PC fans move particles from the low levels (floor) to the air, and are thus responsible for maintaining a constant air velocity and contribute to fungal-spore aerosolization, transport, deposition and resuspension. Book paper and wood furniture are known to be suitable substrates for cellulose degrading fungi.     

Preliminary surveys of outdoor and indoor aeromycobiota in Uganda

This investigation was conducted during the period of March through June 1998 to trap, enumerate and identify the different airborne fungi in a variety of microhabitats of outdoor and indoor environments in different localities of Uganda. The settle plate method was used and Czapek-Dox agar was the isolation medium. A total of 47 genera and 61 species in addition to some other unidentified airborne fungi were trapped from all exposures at outdoor (39 genera and 52 species) and indoor (35 and 49) environments. The total fungal catches of outdoor airspora obtained from all exposures (and even in most individual exposures) were more than twice (5222 colonies) of that of the indoor ones (4361) when the exposure periods are taken into consideration. It is worth mentioning that the most highly polluted sites were either parks, forests or river banks for outdoor exposures, or teaching laboratory, library, laterines or bathrooms for indoor exposures. The most prevalent fungi from both outdoor and indoor microhabitats being species of Mycosphaerella, Yeasts, Penicillium, Fusarium, Aspergillus,Cochliobolus and Alternaria. However, several others were trapped frequently from either outdoor or indoor environments. On the other hand, several others were trapped only, but not frequently (in low or rare instances) from either outdoor or indoor microhabitats. The implications of these airborne spores are also discussed. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A survey of the aeromycota of Sydney and its correspondence with environmental conditions: grass as a component of urban forestry could be a major determinant

A comprehensive survey of airborne fungi has been lacking for the Sydney region. This study determined the diversity and abundance of outdoor airborne fungal concentrations in urban Sydney. Monthly air samples were taken from 11 sites in central Sydney, and culturable fungi identified and quantified. The genus Cladosporium was the most frequently isolated fungal genus, with a frequency of 78 % and a mean density of 335 CFU m^?3. The next most frequently encountered genus was Alternaria, occurring in 53 % of samples with a mean of 124 CFU m^?3. Other frequently identified fungi, in decreasing occurrence, were as follows: Penicillium, Fusarium, Epicoccum, Phoma, Acremonium and Aureobasidium. Additionally, seasonal and spatial trends of airborne fungi were assessed, with increases in total culturable fungal concentrations experienced in the summer months. The correspondence between a range of key environmental variables and the phenology of airborne fungal propagules was also examined, with temperature, wind speed and proximal greenspace having the largest influence on fungal propagule density. If the greenspace was comprised of grass, stronger associations with fungal behaviour were observed.     

Abundance and Diversity of Psychrotolerant Cultivable Mycobiota in Winter of a Former Aluminous Shale Mine

This paper is a speleomycological report from a former aluminous shale mine in Janowiec, Poland. Fungi were identified morphologically and molecularly. Microclimatic conditions differed significantly between locations of the study. However, the external environment around the mine did not directly increase the community composition and concentration of fungi in the mine. The density of fungi isolated from the air outside the mine was 63.1 colony forming units (CFU) per 1 cm³ of air. Inside the mine, fungal density ranged from 287.5 to 655 CFU per 1 m³ from the air, 28.4 to 131.1 CFU per 1 cm² from the rock surfaces and 288.1 to 335.1 CFU per 1 cm³ from the water. Pearson correlation analysis showed that the levels of fungi isolated from the air were correlated positively with temperature, relative humidity and CO₂ concentration. The concentration of fungi isolated from the rock surfaces showed a positive correlation with air flow. Five species of filamentous fungi were isolated from the sampled external air, 10 species from the internal air, six species from the rock surface and 11 species from the water. The fungi most frequently isolated from the air and water of the mine belonged to Penicillium spp., whereas from the rock surface, Geomyces pannorum was most frequently isolated. Some of the fungi present in the mine can be psychrotolerant and pathogenic for humans and animals, and they can also cause degradation of rocks.     

Indoor air quality in schools: exposure to fungal allergens

This study examined indoor air quality within schools in Kansas City, Spokane, Santa Fe, and Orlando. Air sampling was undertaken with both Andersen Single Stage Samplers and Burkard Personal Air Samplers. The data show a wide range of indoor exposures ranging from less than 100 colony forming units (CFU/m³) for viable fungi and 100 spores/m³ for total spores in Spokane and Santa Fe to concentrations over 6000 CFU/m³ for viable fungi and 15 000 spores/m³ for total fungi in Orlando and Kansas City, respectively. In the majority of sites the indoor airspora reflected the outdoor taxa withCladosporium the most abundant genus identified; however, several indoor locations had elevated levels ofPenicillium andAspergillus indicating possible sources of indoor contamination. Airborne basidiospores and smut spores were also fairly abundant in the schools and were among the top five taxa identified. The data also indicated that the airborne concentrations vary significantly during the day and between classrooms within each school. Continued studies in schools are needed to fully assess both the exposure levels and the clinical significance to atopic children allergic to these spores.     

A report on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Penicillium</Emphasis> in the intramural and extramural air of residential areas of Nagpur city (India)

Prevalence of different species of Penicillium and their concentrations per cubic meter of air were evaluated with the use of Hi-Air sampler system Mark II (Hi-Media Laboratories Ltd., India) in the air of homes (bed-rooms) at four different sites in Nagpur. At each of these sites, air sampling was done fortnightly in triplicate for 2 years duration from June 2000 to May 2002. The sampling was also done in triplicate for the outdoor air in the vicinity of each home on the same day immediately after the indoor sampling was over. The mean concentration of Penicillium colony forming units at four different sites in the indoor air was 32, 46.9, 35 and 35.4 CFU/m³, respectively, whereas in the outdoor air at these same four sites, the mean concentration was 24, 28, 25 and 25.8 CFU/m³ respectively. The Penicillium concentration in the indoor air was found to be higher in winter than in other seasons (ANOVA, p < 0.05). Concentration of Penicillium spp. in intramural environment was always higher than that in extramural environment. Statistically significant difference existed between intramural and extramural environments at all the sites, with maximum difference at a site, which is old crowded area of the city. During the 2-years investigations, 11 species of Penicillium were isolated from the indoor air while nine species were isolated from the air outside the homes. The dominant species of Penicillium in indoor as well as outdoor air were P. citrinum (33.78 and 32.81), P. oxalicum (19.70 and 22.60), and P. chrysogenum (17.64 and 14.50). The percentage of the Penicillium in the indoor air was 10.70 while it was 8.36 in outdoor air. Indoor air showed the presence of P. glaber and P. sclerotiorum, which were absent in the outdoor air.