SUPPLEMENTATION OF A WHEAT BREAD DIET WITH LYSINE AND THREONINE: EFFECTS UPON INTRAUTERINE GROWTH AND BRAIN BIOCHEMISTRY

Abstract— During pregnancy, rats were fed either a standard chow diet, a wheat bread diet or a wheat bread diet supplemented with lysine and threonine. At birth, the offspring of the dams fed the supplemented diet differed from the chow fed animals only in having a smaller amount of protein in the combined cerebellum and brain stem area while the pups whose dams were fed the bread diet showed lower brain weights, deficits in protein in all brain parts and deficits in DNA in the cerebrum.     

Maternal zinc deficiency reduces NMDA receptor expression in neonatal rat brain, which persists into early adulthood

Prenatal and early postnatal zinc deficiency impairs learning and memory and these deficits persist into adulthood. A key modulator in this process may be the NMDA receptor; however, effects of zinc deficiency on the regulation of NMDA receptor activity are not well understood. Female Sprague-Dawley rats were fed diets containing 7 (zinc deficient, ZD), 10 (marginally zinc deficient, MZD) or 25 (control) mg Zn/g diet preconception through postnatal day (PN) 20, at which time pups were weaned onto their maternal or control diet. Regulation of NMDA receptor expression was examined at PN2, PN11, and PN65. At PN2, expression of whole brain NMDA receptor subunits NR1, NR2A, and NR2B was lower in pups from dams fed ZD and MZD compared to controls, as analyzed using relative RT-PCR and immunoblotting. At PN11, whole brain and hippocampi NR1, NR2A, NR2B and PSA-NCAM (polysialic acid-neural cell adhesion molecule) expression and the number of PSA-NCAM immunoreactive cells were lower in pups from dams fed ZD compared to controls. Whole brain brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and nerve growth factor (NGF) concentrations were lower in pups from dams fed ZD or both low zinc diets, respectively. Whole brain NR1 expression remained lower in previously zinc-deficient rats at PN65. These data indicate potential mechanisms through which developmental zinc deficiency can impair learning and memory later in life.     

Effect of moderate protein deficiency on reproduction in the female rat and on the development of the pups until weaning

Two groups of Wistar female rats were respectively fed ad libitum a standard stock diet containing 22 p. 100 protein (n = 93) and a diet containing 7.5 p. 100 protein (n = 189) for 8 weeks. They were mated with male rats of the same strain after 2 weeks of these diets. A small decrease (8 p. 100) in fecundity was observed but this moderate protein deprivation did not affect either the litter size (9.68 +/- 3.50 vs 9.61 +/- 3.69) or the percentage of stillborn pups (4.8 vs 4.9 p. 100). The postnatal mortality of the pups of deprived dams was much higher than that of pups from normal dams (11.2 vs 0.9 p. 100). During the suckling period, the 7.5 p. 100 protein diet did not cover the requirements of the dams. They lost 20 p. 100 of their weight, whereas the weight of the dams fed the 22 p. 100 protein diet remained stable. The weight deficit of the young rats born from deprived dams was about 10 p. 100 at birth but it rose to 50 p. 100 at weaning. During the gestation and suckling periods, the maternal body stores and tissues were mobilized to assure the growth of the young.     

Influence of maternal dietary calcium levels on milk zinc, calcium and phosphorus contents and milk production in rats

The aim of this study was to analyze zinc (Zn), calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) contents in milk and the lactational performance in rats fed different Ca levels. Female Wistar rats were fed during pregnancy and lactation with experimental diets containing 20% protein and high (0.90%, HCa), normal (0.60%, NCa) or low (0.20%, LCa) Ca levels. Milk samples were collected after 15 days to determine the milk mineral composition. Pup weight was recorded from birth to weaning (litter size: 6-8 pups) to determine weight gain and calculate milk production. At delivery there were no significant differences in the body weight of the pups between the groups, but at day 15, the LCa group showed lower values than both NCa and HCa groups (p<0.05). The weight gain of the LCa group was significantly lower than of the HCa and NCa groups, between delivery and day 5 (p<0.05). This reduced rate of weight gain led to the LCa group reaching weaning weight later than the other groups. Milk production (g/pup/day) was significantly lower when dams were fed the LCa than the NCa and HCa diets (p<0.05). There were no significant differences among the groups in milk Ca, P and Zn levels and Ca/P ratio. The body mineral composition of the pups at birth did not differ between the groups; at weaning, however, both LCa and HCa groups had lower element contents than the NCa group (p<0.05). In conclusion, dams fed with a diet containing low Ca levels produced smaller volumes of milk and their pups reached weaning weights later than the other groups. As the milk mineral composition was not affected, it can be hypothesized that in dams fed low dietary Ca, the smaller milk yield might have been a way of maintaining milk quality. High Ca levels affected neither pregnancy outcome nor lactational performance.     

Long-term consequences of maternal high-fat feeding on hypothalamic leptin sensitivity and diet-induced obesity in the offspring

Epidemiological and animal studies suggest that the alteration of hormonal and metabolic environment during fetal and neonatal development can contribute to development of metabolic syndrome in adulthood. In this paper, we investigated the impact of maternal high-fat (HF) diet on hypothalamic leptin sensitivity and body weight gain of offspring. Adult Wistar female rats received a HF or a control normal-fat (C) diet for 6 wk before gestation until the end of the suckling period. After weaning, pups received either C or HF diet during 6 wk. Body weight gain and metabolic and endocrine parameters were measured in the eight groups of rats formed according to a postweaning diet, maternal diet, and gender. To evaluate hypothalamic leptin sensitivity in each group, STAT-3 phosphorylation was measured in response to leptin or saline intraperitoneal bolus. Pups exhibited similar body weights at birth, but at weaning, those born to HF dams weighed significantly less (-12%) than those born to C dams. When given the HF diet, males and females born to HF dams exhibited smaller body weight and feed efficiency than those born to C dams, suggesting increased energy expenditure programmed by the maternal HF diet. Thus, maternal HF feeding could be protective against adverse effects of the HF diet as observed in male offspring of control dams: overweight (+17%) with hyperleptinemia and hyperinsulinemia. Furthermore, offspring of HF dams fed either C or HF diet exhibited an alteration in hypothalamic leptin-dependent STAT-3 phosphorylation. We conclude that maternal high-fat diet programs a hypothalamic leptin resistance in offspring, which, however, fails to increase the body weight gain until adulthood.     

Dimethylethanolamine does not prevent liver failure in phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase-deficient mice fed a choline-deficient diet

Mice that lack phosphatidylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase (PEMT) and are fed a choline-deficient (CD) diet suffer severe liver damage and do not survive. Since phosphatidyldimethylethanolamine (PDME) has physical properties similar to those of phosphatidylcholine (PC), we hypothesized that dimethylethanolamine (DME) would be converted into PDME that might substitute for PC, and therefore abrogate the liver damage in the Pemt -/- mice fed a CD diet. We fed Pemt -/- mice either a CD diet, a CD diet supplemented with choline, or a CD diet supplemented with DME (CD + DME). Pemt -/- mice fed the CD diet developed severe liver failure by 4 days while CD + DME-fed mice developed severe liver failure by 5 days. The hepatic PC level in choline-supplemented (CS) mice was 67 +/- 4 nmol/mg protein, whereas the PC content was reduced in CD- and CD + DME-fed mice (49 +/- 3 and 30 +/- 3 nmol/mg protein, respectively). Upon supplementation of the CD diet with DME the amount of hepatic PDME was 81 +/- 9 nmol/mg protein so that the hepatic content of PC + PDME combined was 111 nmol/mg protein. Moreover, plasma apolipoprotein B100 and Al levels were markedly lower in mice fed the CD + DME diet compared to mice fed the CS diet, as was the plasma content of PC. Thus, despite replacement of the deficit in hepatic PC with PDME in Pemt -/- mice fed a CD diet, normal liver function was not restored. We conclude that although PC and PDME exhibit similar physical properties, the three methyl groups of choline are required for hepatic function in mice.     

Effect of dietary caffeine and zinc on the activity of antioxidant enzymes,zinc, and copper concentration of the heart and liver in fast-growing rats

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between concentrations of Zn and Cu and the activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase in the heart and liver of young rat pups whose dams were fed a diet supplemented with caffeine and/or Zn. Four groups of dams with their newborn pups were fed one of the following diets for 22 d: 20% protein basal diet; the basal diet supplemented with caffeine (2 mg/100 body wt); the basal diet supplemented with Zn (300 mg/kg diet); or the basal diet supplemented with caffeine plus Zn. The Cu levels in the livers of the pups were decreased by maternal intake of the caffeine and Zn diet. The maternal intake of the caffeine diet increased Mn-superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) activity and Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase (CUZnSOD) in the heart of the pups. On the other hand, the activity of Cu,ZnSOD was significantly reduced in the liver of pups whose dams consumed a caffeine, Zn, or caffeine plus Zn diet. Cu, ZnSOD activity in the liver of the pups seems to be correlated with Cu levels in the tissue. Selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities in the heart and liver showed no difference among the groups. The effect of dietary caffeine and/or Zn on the activity of antioxidant enzymes in the heart and liver were different in young rats. The activities of these enzymes in the heart were lower than in the liver of 22-d-old rats. Our experiments indicate that the heart has limited defenses against the toxic effects of peroxides when compared to the liver.     

Effects of Maternal Diet and Exercise during Pregnancy on Glucose Metabolism in Skeletal Muscle and Fat of Weanling Rats

Obesity during pregnancy contributes to the development of metabolic disorders in offspring. Maternal exercise may limit gestational weight gain and ameliorate these programming effects. We previously showed benefits of post-weaning voluntary exercise in offspring from obese dams. Here we examined whether voluntary exercise during pregnancy influences lipid and glucose homeostasis in muscle and fat in offspring of both lean and obese dams. Female Sprague-Dawley rats were fed chow (C) or high fat (F) diet for 6 weeks before mating. Half underwent voluntary exercise (CE/FE) with a running wheel introduced 10 days prior to mating and available until the dams delivered; others remained sedentary (CS/FS). Male and female pups were killed at postnatal day (PND)19 and retroperitoneal fat and gastrocnemius muscle were collected for gene expression. Lean and obese dams achieved similar modest levels of exercise. At PND1, both male and female pups from exercised lean dams were significantly lighter (CE versus CS), with no effect in those from obese dams. At PND19, maternal obesity significantly increased offspring body weight and adiposity, with no effect of maternal exercise. Exercise significantly reduced insulin concentrations in males (CE/FE versus CS/FS), with reduced glucose in male FE pups. In males, maternal obesity significantly decreased muscle myogenic differentiation 1 (MYOD1) and glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4) mRNA expressions (FS vs CS); these were normalized by exercise. Maternal exercise upregulated adipose GLUT4, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC1α) mRNA expression in offspring of dams consuming chow. Modest voluntary exercise during pregnancy was associated with lower birth weight in pups from lean dams. Maternal exercise appeared to decrease the metabolic risk induced by maternal obesity, improving insulin/glucose metabolism, with greater effects in male than female offspring.     

Prenatal and postnatal protein restriction in the rat: effect on some parameters related to brain development, and prospects for rehabilitation.

Abstract— From the third day of pregnancy rats were fed a diet containing either 7% casein (experimental) or 24% casein (control). During lactation the control dams were fed the 24% casein diet and the experimental dams a 12% casein diet. From 25 to 50 days of age the experimental and control progeny were fed diets containing 7 and 24% casein, respectively. Between 50 and 120 days both groups were fed a diet containing 24% crude protein. Several indications of brain maturation in two brain areas were examined at various stages of development. In addition to retardation of brain growth, protein restriction led to myelin of an immature composition at 25 and 50 days of age. The immature composition was indicated by a low plasmalogen content at 25 days and by a high phospholipid and low galactolipid and plasmalogen contents at 50 days of age. The activity of the myelin marker enzyme, 2′3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphohydrolase (CNP), was significantly lower in the brains (excluding the cerebella) of malnourished rats at 21, 30 and 50 days. At all ages except at 50 days the activity of CNP in the cerebellum was higher in protein-deprived animals than in controls. The activity of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) in the brains (excluding the cerebella) of protein-deprived rats was significantly lower at 21, 25 and 30 days but not at 50 and 65 days of age. As indicated by brain/body ratios, myelin composition and GAD activity, nutritional rehabilitation led to almost complete recovery of brain maturity, but the activity of CNP remained lower in the experimental group after rehabilitation.     

Effects of an n-3-deficient diet on brain, retina, and liver fatty acyl composition in artificially reared rats

Rat pups born to dams fed a diet with 3.1% of total fatty acids as alpha-linolenic acid (LNA) were fed, using an artificial rearing system, either an n-3-deficient (n-3-Def) or an n-3-adequate (n-3-Adq) diet. Both diets contained 17.1% linoleic acid, but the n-3-Adq diet also contained 3.1% LNA. The percentage of brain docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) continuously decreased (71%) with time over the 29 days of the experiment, with concomitant increases in docosapentaenoic acid (DPAn-6). In the retina, the percentage of DHA rose in the n-3-Adq group, with an apparent increased rate around the time of eye opening. However, there was a flat curve for the percentage of DHA in the n-3-Def group and a rising DPAn-6 with time. Liver DHA was highest at the time of birth in the n-3-Adq group but fell off somewhat over the course of 29 days. This decrease was more pronounced in the n-3-Def group, and the DPAn-6 rose considerably during the second half of the experiment. This method presents a first-generation model for n-3 deficiency that is more similar to the case of human nutrition than is the commonly employed two-generation model.     

Maternal essential fatty acid deficiency depresses serum leptin levels in suckling rat pups

Dietary lipid quantity and quality have recently been shown to affect serum leptin levels in adult rats. Moreover, suckling pups from dams fed a high fat diet had increased serum leptin levels. The aim of the present study was to analyze the influence of essential fatty acid (EFA) deficiency on serum leptin levels in dams and their pups during the suckling period. For the last 10 days of gestation and throughout lactation, pregnant rats were fed a control or an EFA-deficient (EFAD) diet. The levels of leptin and EFA in the serum of the dams and pups were analyzed 1, 2, and 3 weeks after delivery. In parallel, serum levels of glucose and corticosterone were analyzed in the pups. Low serum leptin levels were found in the control lactating dams during the entire lactation period compared with the age-matched nonlactating animals. The leptin concentrations in the lactating dams fed the EFAD diet were lower compared with those fed the control diet. The serum leptin levels of suckling pups from dams on the EFAD diet were markedly decreased compared with controls (P < 0.05). The reduced serum leptin levels could not be explained by nutritional restriction as evaluated by serum levels of glucose and corticosterone. These results indicate the importance of the EFA composition of the maternal diet for serum leptin levels in both dams and pups. EFA deficiency in lactating dams may cause long-term effects on the pups through dysregulation of leptin and leptin-dependent functions. -- Korotkova, M., B. Gabrielsson, L. A. Hanson, and B. Strandvik. Maternal essential fatty acid deficiency depresses serum leptin levels in suckling rat pups. J. Lipid Res. 2001. 42: 359--365.     

Behavioural responses of rats to early housing conditions and to protein-energy malnutrition

Lactating rats were fed either the commercial diet (CO) or the low protein diet which induced symptoms of protein - energy deprivation (PD). They were housed in cages either individually (IH) together with eight offspring or in a large community cage (COM) shared by six dams and 48 youngs. After weaning all rats lived in cages by 4-5 animals. The PD terminated at the age of 49 days. Behaviour was tested on the 10th, 42nd and 150 th days of life. Body weight was recorded during nursing period both in dams and pups, after weaning in male rats. The low protein diet affected both body weight and maternal behaviour of the dams. In PD + IH pups growth as well as behavioural development was retarded. Behavioural alterations persisted even after the PD had been treated. The COM housing improved the body weight in the PD + COM dams, behaviour of both the PD + COM dams ond the pups was less affected than of the PD + IH group. The effect of the early housing was long lasting, manifested itself in elevated exploratory activity and in the decreased emotional responses in both the PD + COM and the CO + COM groups at the age of 42 and 150 days.     

Maternal green tea extract supplementation to rats fed a high-fat diet ameliorates insulin resistance in adult male offspring

Maternal overnutrition is associated with increased risk of metabolic disorders in the offspring. This study tested the hypothesis that maternal green tea (GT) supplementation can alleviate metabolic derangements in high-fat-diet-fed rats born of obese dams. Female Sprague–Dawley rats were fed low-fat (LF, 7%), high-fat (HF, 30%) or HF diet containing 0.75% or 1.0% GT extract (GT1, GT2) prior to conception and throughout gestation and lactation. Both doses of GT significantly improved metabolic parameters of HF-fed lactating dams (P<.05). Birth weight and litter size of offspring from HF dams were similar, but GT supplementation led to lighter pups on day 21 (P<.05). The weaned male pups received HF, GT1 or GT2 diet (dam/pup diet groups: LF/HF, HF/HF, HF/GT1, HF/GT2, GT1/HF and GT2/HF). At week 13, they had similar weight but insulin resistance index (IRI), serum nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA) and liver triglyceride of rats born to GT dams were 57%, 23% and 26% lower, accompanied by improved gene/protein expressions related to lipid and glucose metabolism, compared with the HF/HF rats (P<.05). Although HF/GT1 and HF/GT2 rats had lower serum NEFA, their insulin and IRI were comparable to HF/HF rats. This study shows that metabolic derangements induced by an overnourished mother could be offset by supplementing GT to the maternal diet and that this approach is more effective than giving GT to offspring since weaning. Hence, adverse effects of developmental programming are reversible, at least in part, by supplementing bioactive food component(s) to the mother's diet.     

Changes in Blood-Brain Barrier Nutrient Transport in the Offspring of Iodine-Deficient Rats and Their Preventability

Thyroid hormones affect the structure and function of biological membranes. Whether or not they affect the Blood-Brain Barrier nutrient transport, the rate limiting membrane transport regulating nutrient supply to brain is to be established yet. That the impaired brain development and function seen in iodine deficiency could be due to such an effect has been assessed in situ by the brain uptake index (BUI) method in Wistar/NIN rat pups born to dams subjected to dietary iodine deficiency/rehabilitation for different times. Compared to controls (C), there was a significant decrease in the BUI values of 2-Deoxy-D-Glucose (2-DG) and L-leucine (Leu) in the pups (D1) born to dams chronically fed low iodine test (LIT) diet through their active growth and subsequent pregnancy and lactation. Surprisingly transport of L-Tyrosine (Tyr) and sucrose (the background marker) was not altered, nor was the BBB transport of all these nutrients affected by feeding LIT diet during the mothers' gestation (D2) and lactation (D3) only. The hypothyroidism in D1 pups was only moderate and preventable by rehabilitation of mothers with control diet from conception (R1) or parturition (R2), as were the changes in BBB nutrient transport. The results suggest that chronic material dietary iodine deficiency impairs BBB nutrient transport in the offspring and this could be prevented by their rehabilitation with iodine.     

Comparative Effects of Ethanol and Malnutrition on the Development of Catecholamine Neurons: Changes in Neurotransmitter Levels

Abstract: The comparative effects of exposure to ethanol and malnutrition on the concentrations of tyrosine and catecholamines in whole brain and selected regions of brain have been studied in the developing rat. These animals were the offspring of optimally nourished rats (control pups), of rats fed a diet with 35% of the calories supplied by ethanol (ETOH pups), or of animals fed a diet calorically equivalent to the latter but lacking ethanol (iso-caloric, 1C pups). These diets were administered to dams either during the last week of gestation (prenatal) or during lactation (postnatal). Tyrosine levels were elevated prior to birth in the prenatal ETOH or IC pups or at 1 and 2 weeks of age in postnatal ETOH or 1C pups as compared with values found in the control offspring. Dopamine concentration in whole brain was significantly lower in prenatal ETOH pups than in prenatal IC pups at 3 weeks of age. Levels in the brains of postnatal ETOH pups were lower than control values, but not relative to animals exposed to 1C diet. Investigation of corpus striatum showed a significant decrease in dopamine concentration compared with control or IC pup values as a result of postnatal exposure to ethanol. Norepinephrine levels in the whole brain of prenatal ETOH pups were consistently 30–40% lower than either control or matched 1C pups during development. At 3 weeks of age, the norepinephrine levels in the hypothalamus of animals exposed to ethanol pre or postnatally were 30–60% lower than values in the corresponding region in either control or 1C pups. In the rat model described, ethanol caused a decrease in catecholamine levels, perhaps solely by affecting the norepinephrine neurons.     

Circulating leptin levels in newborn rats: a significant post- natal developmental effect,independent of dietary polyunsaturated fat levels

Leptin expression exhibits developmental and dietary regulation, but it is unknown whether there is an interaction of the regulation by dietary fat and postnatal development. The purpose of this study was to test the effect of different levels of dietary polyunsaturated fat on circulating leptin levels at different post-natal developmental stages. Pregnant (Sprague-Dawley) rats consumed from day 15 of pregnancy through day 9 of lactation a low fat, (11% of energy; LF) polyunsaturated safflower oil diet. From day 9 of lactation, dams and their respective pups were fed low, moderate (40% of energy; MF) or high (67% of energy; HF) polyunsaturated safflower oil diets to full maturation (56 days). Diets were iso-energetic and iso-nitrogenous. Milk fatty acid content reflected the mothers and pups diet, with 15 to 100 fold less C10:0 and 2.6 to 3.3 fold more C18:2 in MF and HF groups compared to LF diet. In newborn rats through post-natal day 56, levels of polyunsaturated fat in mothers' milk and mothers/pups diet had no effect on the levels of circulating leptin. The post-natal development period significantly affected circulating leptin levels (p < 0.001, 15 days = 56 days > 21 days > 28 days). In summary, the developmental postnatal stage regulates leptin levels, independently of the polyunsaturated fat levels in the diet.     

Effects of marginal zinc deficiency on microtubule polymerization in the developing rat brain

One of the possible mechanisms that has been proposed to underlie the deleterious effects of zinc deficiency on brain development is an impairment in the normal formation of the cytoskeletal network. In the current study, in vivo microtubule polymerization was characterized in brain supernatant fluids, from 20-d-old pups whose dams were fed diets containing control (50 micrograms zinc/g) or marginal levels of zinc (10 micrograms zinc/g) throughout pregnancy and lactation. Pup brain and body weights were similar between the groups; however, plasma zinc concentrations were lower (27%) in pups fed the marginal zinc diet than in controls. Tubulin concentrations in 100,000 g brain supernates were similar between the groups; however, tubulin polymerization in the brain supernates was significantly lower in pups fed the marginal zinc diet compared to controls. Primarily, the early events of polymerization were affected; the lag period of the reaction was doubled, and the initial velocity was slower (26%) in supernates from pups fed the marginal zinc diet than in controls. These findings support the idea that some of the negative effects of marginal zinc deficiency on brain development and function may be mediated by an alteration in microtubule formation.     

Lactation in mice fed endophyte-infected tall fescue seed

This study was conducted to assess the effects of endophyte-infected Acremonium coenophialum tall fescue (KY-31) seed (80% infected) on lactation in CD-1 dams and suckling performance of pups as measured by pup survival and growth rates. Twenty-four pairs of mature CD-1 mice were randomly allocated to four dietary treatments: 1) 100% mouse chow ad libitum; 2) 40% endophyte-infected tall fescue seed and 60% mouse chow (w/w); 3) reduced intake (100% chow), adjusted daily to the intake level of Treatment 2; and 4) 60% infected tall fescue seed and 40% chow. The mice were preconditioned on their respective diets for 100 d prior to 96 h of cohabitation between pairs of males and females. At parturition the litters were removed, and each dam was given a litter of six pups of equal weight, size and sex ratio to suckle for 15 days. All pups given to all the dams were born to other mice that were not part of the study and had not been exposed to endophyte-containing diets. Dams and litter weights were measured daily for 15 consecutive days. The combined body weight measurements of litters from dams fed the tall fescue containing diets (Treatments 2 and 4) were significantly lower (2.07 +/- 0.41 g/d) than that of litters from dams fed the chow containing diets (Treatments 1 and 3) during the suckling trial (P<0.05). Similarly, nine of ten (90%) dams fed the chow containing diets maintained five or more pups (5.5 +/- 0.2) throughout the study as compared to five of nine (55.6%) dams fed the tall fescue containing diets that maintained less than five pups (4.5 +/- 0.2).     

The effects of elk velvet antler consumption on the rat: development, behavior, toxicity and the activity of liver gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase

The effect of exposure to, followed by consumption of, a diet containing 10% powdered elk velvet antler (EVA) from the 18th day of gestation to the 88th day after birth was examined in male and female Fischer 344 rats. There were no teratogenic effects of EVA exposure in utero or differences in birth outcomes between pups born to regular chow fed and EVA chow fed dams. Growth curves of the EVA fed rats were identical to those of regular chow fed rats, as were developmental milestones of pinna development and eye-opening. Acoustical startle and righting reflexes, developmental and behavioral indices, were identical. Blood glucose levels were comparable in EVA chow fed and regular chow fed rats, indicating that EVA is without effect on glucose balance. There were no signs of toxicity in the EVA chow fed compared to regular chow fed rats as judged from plasma enzyme markers of liver damage: plasma levels of alanine aminotransferase were 50% lower in EVA chow fed rats compared to regular chow fed rats; and plasma levels of gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (gammaGT) were the same. The activity of gammaGT displayed a decrease in the livers of EVA chow fed rats, more so in the male (22%) than in the female (14%), suggestive of an androgenic effect. A possible hepatobeneficial effect of the EVA induced decrease in liver gammaGT is discussed. In summary, dietary10% EVA chow is without long term effect on growth, development and behavior is non-toxic and may be hepatobeneficial.