Fumigant toxicity of plant essential oils against Camptomyia corticalis (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

The toxicity of 98 plant essential oils against third instars of cecidomyiid gall midge Camptomyia corticalis (Loew) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) was examined using a vapor-phase mortality bioassay. Results were compared with that of a conventional insecticide dichlorvos. Based on 24-h LC50 values, all essential oils were less toxic than dichlorvos (LC50, 0.027 mg/cm3). The LC50 of caraway (Carum carvi L.) seed, armoise (Artemisia vulgaris L.), clary sage (Salvia sclarea L.), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), lemongrass [Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf], niaouli (Melaleuca viridiflora Gaertner), spearmint (Mentha spicata L.), cassia especial (Cinnamomum cassia Nees ex Blume), Dalmatian sage (Salvia offcinalis L.), red thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), bay [Pimenta racemosa (P. Mill.) J.W. Moore], garlic (Allium sativum L.), and pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium L.) oils is between 0.55 and 0.60 mg/cm3. The LC50 of cassia (C. cassia, pure and redistilled), white thyme (T. vulgaris), star anise (Illicium verum Hook.f.), peppermint (Mentha X piperita L.), wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens L.), cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume) bark, sweet marjoram (Origanum majorana L.), Roman chamomile [Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All.], eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus Labill.), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.),Virginian cedarwood (Juniperus virginiana L.), pimento berry [Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr.], summer savory (Satureja hortensis L.), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.), and coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) oils is between 0.61 and 0.99 mg/cm3. All other essential oils tested exhibited low toxicity to the cecidomyiid larvae (LC50, >0.99 mg/cm3). Global efforts to reduce the level of highly toxic synthetic insecticides in the agricultural environment justify further studies on the active essential oils as potential larvicides for the control of C. corticalis populations as fumigants with contact action.     

Biochemical activities of Iranian Mentha piperita L. and Myrtus communis L. essential oils

GC-MS analysis of essential oils of Iranian Mentha piperita and Myrtus communis extracted by hydrodistillation lead to identification of 26 and 32 compounds, respectively. The oils had good to excellent antimicrobial activities against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans with the oil of M. piperita being more active. The findings suggest feasibility of application of M. piperita oil in treatment of the infections caused by C. albicans and E. coli. D-values on exposure to M. piperita and Myrtus communis oils were (2.14 and 2.8min), (1.4 and 12.8min) and (4.3 and 8.6min) for E. coli, S. aureus and C. albicans , respectively. The oils were screened for their possible antioxidant activities by two complementary test systems, namely DPPH free radical scavenging and beta-carotene/linoleic acid systems. M. piperirta oil exerted greater antioxidant activity than that of M. communis. Phytochemical and phytobiological characteristics of these oils may lead to extraction and production of active compounds in single or combined forms with useful applications.     

Essential Oils as Potent Source of Nematicidal Compounds

Bioassay tests were conducted to find out the nematicidal activity of eight essential oils against Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) Chitwood at four concentrations. Maximum activity was recorded in oils of Eucalyptus citriodora , Eucalyptus hybrida and Ocimum basilicum followed by Pelargonium graveolens , Cymbopogon martinii, Mentha arvensis, Mentha piperita and Mentha spicata oils, respectively. The eucalyptus ( E. citriodora and E. hybrida ) and Indian basil ( O. basilicum ) oils were highly toxic to M. incognita even at the lower concentrations, namely 500 and 250 ppm. The remaining oils were also toxic to the nematode but at different amounts.     

椒样薄荷、薄荷和苏格兰留兰香精油与抗生素的协同抑菌功能

以开花期的椒样薄荷(Mentha × piperita)、薄荷(M. haplocalyx)和苏格兰留兰香(M. × gentilis)叶片部位提取的精油为研究对象, 通过GC-MS分析, 并采用纸片扩散法研究了3种精油单独使用及与抗生素联合使用时对金黄色葡萄球菌、蜡状芽孢杆菌、大肠杆菌、绿脓杆菌和肺炎克雷伯氏菌的抑制情况。结果表明, (1) 椒样薄荷与薄荷精油中含量最高的成分为薄荷醇、薄荷酮和异薄荷酮, 苏格兰留兰香精油的主要成分为香芹酮和柠檬烯。薄荷和苏格兰留兰香精油符合欧洲药典与ISO标准, 椒样薄荷需要继续改良以提高其精油品质与抑菌功能。(2) 精油单独使用时, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442对椒样薄荷精油和薄荷精油敏感; P. aeruginosa ATCC 27853对薄荷精油和苏格兰留兰香精油敏感。精油与抗生素联合使用时抑菌范围和强度均有所改变: 绿脓杆菌的2个菌株对精油与抗生素的组合最为敏感, 其中, 椒样薄荷精油与头孢他啶的组合对P. aeruginosa ATCC 15442显示出最强的增效作用, 薄荷精油与头孢他啶混合之后对P. aeruginosa ATCC 27853出现拮抗作用。Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923对所有精油以及精油与抗生素混合物均有抗性。(3) 椒样薄荷、薄荷和苏格兰留兰香精油的不同成分及其含量差异不仅对精油品质有影响, 而且影响精油对测试菌种的抑制作用, 可考虑将其作为薄荷属植物品质育种的参考指标。     

The antimicrobial activity of four commercial essential oils in combination with conventional antimicrobials

Aims:  Due to the emergence of multi-drug resistance, alternatives to conventional antimicrobial therapy are needed. This study aims to investigate the in vitro pharmacological interactions between essential oils (considered valuable as natural therapeutic treatments) and conventional antimicrobials (ciprofloxacin/amphotericin B) when used in combination.
Methods and Results:  Interactions of the essential oils ( Melaleuca alternifolia , Thymus vulgaris , Mentha piperita and Rosmarinus officinalis ) when combined with ciprofloxacin against Staphylococcus aureus indicate mainly antagonistic profiles. When tested against Klebsiella pneumoniae the isobolograms show antagonistic, synergistic and additive interactions depending on the combined ratio. The R. officinalis/ ciprofloxacin combination against K. pneumoniae displayed the most favourable synergistic pattern. The interactions of M. alternifolia (tea tree), T.   vulgaris (thyme), M. piperita (peppermint) and R. officinalis (rosemary) essential oils with amphotericin B indicate mainly antagonistic profiles when tested against Candida albicans.
Conclusion:  While a number of interactions show complete antagonism, others show varied (synergistic, additive and/or antagonistic) interactions, thus the efficacy is dependent on the ratio in which the two components co-exist.
Significance and Impact of the Study:  The predominant antagonistic interactions noted here, suggests that some natural therapies containing essential oils should be used with caution when combined with antibiotics.     

Inhibition by the essential oils of peppermint and spearmint of the growth of pathogenic bacteria

The effects of the, essential oils of peppermint (Mentha piperita L.), spearmint Mentha spicata L.) and Japanese mint (Mentha, arvensis L.), of four major constituents of the esssential oil of peppermint, and of three major constituents of the essential oil of spearmint, on the proliferation of Helicobacter pylori, Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli O157:H7, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and methicillin sensitive Staphylococccus aureus (MSSA) were examined. The essential oils and the various constituents inhibited the proliferation of each strain in liquid culture in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, they exhibited bactericidal activity in phosphate-buffered saline. The antibacterial activities varied among the bacterial species tested but were almost the same against antibiotic-resistant and antibiotic-sensitive strains of Helicobacter pylori and S. aureus. Thus, the essential oils and their constituents may be useful as potential antibacterial agents for inhibition of the growth of pathogens.     

Purification of 4S-limonene synthase, a monoterpene cyclase from the glandular trichomes of peppermint (Mentha x piperita) and spearmint (Mentha spicata).

The p-menthane monoterpenes of the Mentha species are biosynthesized from geranyl pyrophosphate via the monocyclic olefin 4S-limonene. A monoterpene cyclase was isolated from both Mentha x piperita (peppermint) and Mentha spicata (spearmint) that catalyzes the cyclization of geranyl pyrophosphate to 4S-limonene. This enzyme, 4S-limonene synthase, was purified to apparent homogeneity by dye ligand, anion exchange, and hydrophobic interaction chromatography. Since the monoterpenes of Mentha are synthesized and secreted in modified epidermal hairs called glandular trichomes, an extract of isolated glandular trichome cells was used as the source of this enzyme. A combination of gel permeation chromatography and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that purified 4S-limonene synthase had a native molecular weight of 56,000 and was monomeric. The principal product of the enzyme was enantiomerically pure (-)-4S-limonene, and a catalytic constant of 0.3/s was determined. The basic properties of 4S-limonene synthase from both M. x piperita and M. spicata are identical and, in general, are similar to those of other monoterpene, sesquiterpene, and diterpene cyclases isolated from microorganisms and higher plants.     

Efficacy and repellency of some essential oils and their blends against larval and adult house flies,Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae)

House flies are global pests and notoriously difficult to control. Essential oils of vetiver, cinnamon, and lavender and their blends were tested for toxic and repellent effects against larval and adult flies. All of the oils had moderate toxicity for eggs. Mortality of 2^nd instar larvae was 57–78% in dipping assays, 38–100% in contact assays, and 94–100% in treated media. Lavender was less effective (38% mortality) than the others (91–100%) in contact bioassays. Oil blends were not more effective against larvae than individual oils. Vetiver and cinnamon oils were strongly repellent (84 and 78%, respectively) for larvae in treated media. None of the oils were repellent for adult house flies in olfactometer assays, but testing of additional products demonstrated significant repellency for neem oil, p‐menthane‐3,8‐diol (PMD), and vanillin. Contact/fumigant toxicity of vetiver, cinnamon, and lavender oils was 100%, significantly higher than mortality from sunflower oil (67%). Blends of oils were not more effective against adults than the individual oils, but blends diluted with sunflower oil were as effective as the individual oils. Essentials oils of vetiver and cinnamon may have potential for fly management in situations where conventional insecticides cannot be used.     

Toxic and deterrent effects of two volatile oils against cowpea weevil,Callosobruchus chinensis (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)

The fumigant effect of Mentha piperita and Ocimum basilicum oils and their mixture against adults and eggs of Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) was evaluated. Bioassay experiments showed that Ocimum basilicum oil was significantly effective against adult and egg stage which was the least effective. However, in the fumigant toxicity experiments against adult stage, Ocimum basilicum oil at a dose of 1.0 μl/38.5 ml air caused 100% mortality (LC₅₀ = 1.88), the mixture of both oils at a dose of 6.0 μl/38.5 ml air caused 100% mortality (LC₅₀ = 10.3) and Mentha piperita oil at a dose of 80.0 μl/38.5 ml air caused 80.0% mortality (LC₅₀ = 41.224) during a one day exposure period. Regarding the oviposition deterrent activity, Ocimum basilicum oil achieved 100% oviposition deterrent (at a dose of 0.5 μl/38.5 ml air) followed by the mixture of Mentha piperita and Ocimum basilicum oils, which achieved 71.22% oviposition deterrent (at a dose of 1.0 μl/38.5 ml air) and Mentha piperita oil, which achieved 39.6% oviposition deterrent (at a dose of 5.0 μl/38.5 ml air). The essential oils and their mixtures studied here determined a significant decrease in the number of eggs hatched and in the emergence of adults. The eggs failed to hatch on using Ocimum basilicum oil at a dose of 0.6 μl/38.5 ml air. However, the number of eggs hatched decreased to 7.4 on using a mixture of oils at a dose of 2.0 μl/38.5 ml air and 14.0 with Mentha piperita oil at a dose of 80.0 μl/38.5 ml air compared with 25.0 eggs hatched in the control experiments. On the other hand, the percentage reduction in emerging adults were 100% for Ocimum basilicum oil, 90.9% for a mixture of the two oils and 72.7% for Mentha piperita oil. Results showed that Ocimum basilicum oil and Ocimum basilicum oils plus Mentha piperita oils in blend are potential alternatives to synthetic fumigants in the treatment of durable agricultural products. Successful adoption of plant oils in the protection of food commodities promises an eco-friendly option compatible with international biosafety regulations.     

椒样薄荷、薄荷和苏格兰留兰香精油与抗生素的协同抑菌功能

以开花期的椒样薄荷（Mentha×piperita）、薄荷（M.haplocalyx）和苏格兰留兰香（M.×gentilis）叶片部位提取的精油为研究对象,通过GC-MS分析,并采用纸片扩散法研究了3种精油单独使用及与抗生素联合使用时对金黄色葡萄球菌、蜡状芽孢杆菌、大肠杆菌、绿脓杆菌和肺炎克雷伯氏菌的抑制情况。结果表明,（1）椒样薄荷与薄荷精油中含量最高的成分为薄荷醇、薄荷酮和异薄荷酮,苏格兰留兰香精油的主要成分为香芹酮和柠檬烯。薄荷和苏格兰留兰香精油符合欧洲药典与ISO标准,椒样薄荷需要继续改良以提高其精油品质与抑菌功能。（2）精油单独使用时,Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC15442对椒样薄荷精油和薄荷精油敏感;P.aeruginosa ATCC27853对薄荷精油和苏格兰留兰香精油敏感。精油与抗生素联合使用时抑菌范围和强度均有所改变：绿脓杆菌的2个菌株对精油与抗生素的组合最为敏感,其中,椒样薄荷精油与头孢他啶的组合对P.aeruginosa ATCC15442显示出最强的增效作用,薄荷精油与头孢他啶混合之后对P.aeruginosa ATCC27853出现拮抗作用。Staphylococcus aureus ATCC25923对所有精油以及精油与抗生素混合物均有抗性。（3）椒样薄荷、薄荷和苏格兰留兰香精油的不同成分及其含量差异不仅对精油品质有影响,而且影响精油对测试菌种的抑制作用,可考虑将其作为薄荷属植物品质育种的参考指标。     

几种药用植物精油的抗真菌活性研究

研究了作用浓度为0：7-4．0μL/mL的南方药用植物香茅（Cymbopogon citratus）、广藿香（Pogostemon cablin（Blanco）Benth）、大叶桉（Eucalyptus robusta Smith）和蛇床（Cnidium monnier（L.）Cusson）的精油对6种植物病原真菌的抑制活性。结果表明,大叶桉、广藿香和香茅精油对串珠镰刀病菌（Fussarium moniliforme）、玉米弯孢霉菌（Curvjlaria lunata）对多种供试植物病原真菌的生长有明显抑制活性,其中,香茅精油在浓度为3．3μL/mL时,能完全抑制大部分供试真菌的生长。但不同精油对于各病原真菌的抑制率有一定差异。本研究为复合植物精油抗真菌农药的开发提供依据。     

Suppression of cell proliferation and deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis in the cloned rat hepatoma H4‐II‐E cells overexpressing regucalcin

The role of endogenous regucalcin (RC) in the regulation of cell proliferation was investigated in the cloned rat hepatoma H4‐II‐E cells overexpressing RC stably. H4‐II‐E cells were transfected with RC/pCXN2 vector and the multiple neomycin‐resistant clones which overexpress stably RC were selected. The RC content of RC/pCXN2‐transfected cells used in this study was 19.7‐fold as compared with that of the parental wild type H4‐II‐E cells. Wild type H4‐II‐E cells, pCXN2 vector‐transfected cells (mock type), and RC/pCXN2‐transfected cells (transfectants) were cultured for 24, 48, and 72 h in the presence of fetal bovine serum (10% FBS). Cell numbers of wild and mock type were significantly increased with the time course of culture. Cell numbers of transfectants was significantly suppressed as compared with that of wild and mock type. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis activity in the nuclear fraction of H4‐II‐E cells was significantly suppressed in transfectants with culture for 12–48 h. The presence of anti‐RC monoclonal antibody (10–50 ng/ml) in the reaction mixture caused a significant increase in DNA synthesis activity in the nuclei of wild type and transfectants; this increase was remarkable in transfectants. The effect of anti‐RC monoclonal antibody (50 ng/ml) in increasing DNA synthesis activity in transfectants was completely prevented by the addition of regucalcin (1 μM). This study demonstrates that cell proliferation is suppressed in the cloned rat hepatoma H4‐II‐E overexpressing RC stably. J. Cell. Biochem. 84: 143–149, 2002. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Demonstration that limonene is the first cyclic intermediate in the biosynthesis of oxygenated p-menthane monoterpenes in Mentha piperita and other Mentha species

The volatile oil of mature Mentha piperita (peppermint) leaves contains as major components the oxygenated p-menthane monoterpenes l-menthol (47%) and l-menthone (24%) as well as very low levels of the monoterpene olefins limonene (1%) and terpinolene (0.1%), which are considered to be probable precursors of the oxygenated derivatives. Immature leaves, which are actively synthesizing monoterpenes, produce an oil with comparatively higher levels of limonene (approximately 3%), and isolation of the pure olefin showed this compound to consist of approximately 80% of the l-(4S)-enantiomer and approximately 20% of the d-(4R)-enantiomer. The time course of incorporation of [U-14C]sucrose into the monoterpenes of M. piperita shoot tips was consistent with the initial formation of limonene and its subsequent conversion to menthone via pulegone. d,l-[9-3H]Limonene and [9,10-3H]terpinolene were prepared and tested directly as precursors of oxygenated p-menthane monoterpenes in M. piperita shoot tips. Limonene was readily incorporated into pulegone, menthone, and other oxygenated derivatives, whereas terpinolene was not appreciably incorporated into these compounds. Similarly, d,l-[9-3H]limonene was specifically incorporated into pulegone in Mentha pulegium and into the C-2-oxygenated derivative carvone in Mentha spicata, confirming the role of this olefin as the essential precursor of oxygenated p-menthane monoterpenes. Soluble enzyme preparations from the epidermis of immature M. piperita leaves converted the acyclic terpenoid precursor [1-3H]geranyl pyrophosphate to limonene as the major cyclic product, providing a further indication that this olefin plays a central role in the formation of oxygenated monoterpenes in Mentha. No free intermediates were detected in the cyclization of geranyl pyrophosphate to limonene, suggesting that the olefin is the first cyclic intermediate to arise in the pathway, and resolution of the biosynthetic limonene, by crystallization of the derived d- and l-carvoximes, indicated an enantiomer mixture nearly identical to that isolated from the leaf oil.     

Mentha piperita (Linn) leaf extract provides protection against radiation induced alterations in intestinal mucosa of Swiss albino mice

Intestinal protection in mice against radiation injury by M. piperita (1 g/kg body weight/day) was studied from day 1 to day 20 after whole body gamma irradiation (8 Gy). Villus height, goblet cells/villus section, total cells, mitotic cells and dead cells/crypt section in the jejunum are good parameters for the assessment of radiation damage. There was significant decrease in the villus height, number of total cells and mitotic cells/crypt section, whereas goblet cells and dead cells showed significant increase after irradiation. Mentha pretreatment resulted in a significant increase in villus height, total cells and mitotic cells, whereas goblet cells and dead cells showed a significant decrease from respective irradiated controls at each autopsy day. The results suggest that Mentha pretreatment provides protection against radiation induced alterations in intestinal mucosa of Swiss albino mice.     

Control of Aspergillus section Flavi growth and aflatoxin accumulation by plant essential oils

Aims:  The antifungal effect of Pimpinella anisum (anise), Pëumus boldus (boldus), Mentha piperita (peppermint), Origanum vulgare (oregano) and Minthosthachys verticillata (peperina) essential oils against Aspergillus section Flavi (two isolates of Aspergillus parasiticus and two isolates of Aspergillus flavus ) was evaluated in maize meal extract agar at 0·982 and 0·955 water activities, at 25°C.
Methods and Results:  The percentage of germination, germ-tube elongation rate, growth rate and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) accumulation at different essential oils concentrations were evaluated. Anise and boldus essential oils were the most inhibitory at 500 mg kg⁻¹ to all growth parameters of the fungus. These essential oils inhibited the percentage of germination, germ-tube elongation rate and fungal growth. AFB₁ accumulation was completely inhibited by anise, boldus and oregano essential oils. Peperina and peppermint essential oils inhibited AFB₁ production by 85–90% in all concentrations assayed.
Conclusions:  Anise and boldus essential oils could be considered as effective fungitoxicans for Aspergillus section flavi .
Significance and Impact of the Study:  Our results suggest that these phytochemical compounds could be used alone or in conjunction with other substances to control the presence of aflatoxigenic fungi in stored maize.     

Formation of monoterpenes in Antirrhinum majus and Clarkia breweri flowers involves heterodimeric geranyl diphosphate synthases

The precursor of all monoterpenes is the C10 acyclic intermediate geranyl diphosphate (GPP), which is formed from the C5 compounds isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate by GPP synthase (GPPS). We have discovered that Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon) and Clarkia breweri, two species whose floral scent is rich in monoterpenes, both possess a heterodimeric GPPS like that previously reported from Mentha piperita (peppermint). The A. majus and C. breweri cDNAs encode proteins with 53% and 45% amino acid sequence identity, respectively, to the M. piperita GPPS small subunit (GPPS.SSU). Expression of these cDNAs in Escherichia coli yielded no detectable prenyltransferase activity. However, when each of these cDNAs was coexpressed with the M. piperita GPPS large subunit (GPPS.LSU), which shares functional motifs and a high level of amino acid sequence identity with geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthases (GGPPS), active GPPS was obtained. Using a homology-based cloning strategy, a GPPS.LSU cDNA also was isolated from A. majus. Its coexpression in E. coli with A. majus GPPS.SSU yielded a functional heterodimer that catalyzed the synthesis of GPP as a main product. The expression in E. coli of A. majus GPPS.LSU by itself yielded active GGPPS, indicating that in contrast with M. piperita GPPS.LSU, A. majus GPPS.LSU is a functional GGPPS on its own. Analyses of tissue-specific, developmental, and rhythmic changes in the mRNA and protein levels of GPPS.SSU in A. majus flowers revealed that these levels correlate closely with monoterpene emission, whereas GPPS.LSU mRNA levels did not, indicating that the levels of GPPS.SSU, but not GPPS.LSU, might play a key role in regulating the formation of GPPS and, thus, monoterpene biosynthesis.     

不同杀虫剂选育对家蝇抗药性水平及kdr基因频率的影响

采用杀虫剂（溴氰菊酯和甲基嘧啶磷）筛选及不接触药物自然衰退的方法,研究了家蝇Musca domestica氯氟氰菊酯高抗品系(Cyh-R)对杀虫剂的抗性变化,探讨蝇类抗药性治理的方法。用点滴法测定氯氟氰菊酯对不同家蝇品系的毒力,比较抗药性的变化,结合特异性等位基因PCR扩增（PASA）技术检测了不同家蝇品系的kdr基因频率,探讨kdr基因频率与抗性水平之间的关系。结果表明:甲基嘧啶磷筛选后,氯氟氰菊酯对第2~8代Cyh-R品系的LD₅₀呈递减趋势,从F₀的2.8434 μg/蝇降为F₈的0.4404 μg/蝇,但第8~18代Cyh-R品系的LD₅₀呈逐代递增趋势;溴氰菊酯筛选后,氯氟氰菊酯对Cyh-R品系第2~16代的LD₅₀呈上升趋势,从F₀的2.8434 μg/蝇升至F₁₆的24.3249 μg/蝇;表明了施用有机磷杀虫剂可降低其对氯氟氰菊酯的抗药性,而施用拟除虫菊酯药剂则有助于其对氯氟氰菊酯抗药性的增长;不使用任何杀虫剂也能降低其对氯氟氰菊酯的抗药性,但下降速率低于甲基嘧啶磷。PASA技术检测表明Cyh-R品系的kdr抗性基因频率为88.8%,不经过任何药剂筛选其kdr抗性基因频率下降程度最大,达到69.7%;甲基嘧啶磷筛选后其结果降为78.8%,而经溴氰菊酯筛选后kdr抗性基因频率则明显升高,达到98.9%。通过对kdr抗性基因频率和抗性水平进行相关和回归分析表明kdr抗性基因频率与家蝇对氯氟氰菊酯的LD₅₀呈对数关系,即LD₅₀值高的品系其kdr抗性基因频率相应的也较高。建议在家蝇防治中考虑轮换用药。     

Comparison of bacteriostatic and bactericidal activity of 13 essential oils against strains with varying sensitivity to antibiotics

Aims:  To compare the bacteriostatic and bactericidal activity of 13 chemotyped essential oils (EO) on 65 bacteria with varying sensitivity to antibiotics.
Methods and Results:  Fifty-five bacterial strains were tested with two methods used for evaluation of antimicrobial activity (CLSI recommendations): the agar dilution method and the time-killing curve method. EO containing aldehydes ( Cinnamomum verum bark and Cymbopogon citratus ), phenols ( Origanum compactum , Trachyspermum ammi , Thymus satureioides , Eugenia caryophyllus and Cinnamomum verum leaf) showed the highest antimicrobial activity with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) <2% (v/v) against all strains except Pseudomonas aeruginosa . Alcohol-based EO ( Melaleuca alternifolia , Cymbopogon martinii and Lavandula angustifolia ) exhibited varying degrees of activity depending on Gram status. EO containing 1·8-cineole and hydrocarbons ( Eucalyptus globulus , Melaleuca cajeputii and Citrus sinensis ) had MIC_90% ≥ 10% (v/v). Against P. aeruginosa , only C. verum bark and O. compactum presented MIC ≤2% (v/v). Cinnamomum verum bark, O. compactum , T. satureioides , C. verum leaf and M. alternifolia were bactericidal against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli at concentrations ranging from to 0·31% to 10% (v/v) after 1 h of contact. Cinnamomum verum bark and O. compactum were bactericidal against P. aeruginosa within 5 min at concentrations <2% (v/v).
Conclusions:  Cinnamomum verum bark had the highest antimicrobial activity, particularly against resistant strains.
Significance and Impact of the Study:  Bacteriostatic and bactericidal activity of EO on nosocomial antibiotic-resistant strains.     

Monoterpenic aldehydes as potential anti-Leishmania agents: activity of Cymbopogon citratus and citral on L. infantum, L. tropica and L. major

In order to contribute for the search of new drugs for leishmaniasis, we study the susceptibility of Leishmania infantum, Leishmania tropica and Leishmania major to Cymbopogon citratus essential oil and major compounds, mrycene and citral. C. citratus and citral were the most active inhibiting L. infantum, L. tropica and L. major growth at IC(50) concentrations ranging from 25 to 52 μg/ml and from 34 to 42 μg/ml, respectively. L. infantum promastigotes exposed to essential oil and citral underwent considerable ultrastructural alterations, namely mitochondrial and kinetoplast swelling, autophagosomal structures, disruption of nuclear membrane and nuclear chromatin condensation. C. citratus essential oil and citral promoted the leishmanicidal effect by triggering a programmed cell death. In fact, the leishmanicidal activity was mediated via apoptosis as evidenced by externalization of phosphatidylserine, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, and cell-cycle arrest at the G(0)/G(1) phase. Taken together, ours findings lead us to propose that citral was responsible for anti-Leishmania activity of the C. citratus and both may represent a valuable source for therapeutic control of leishmaniasis.     

Giardia lamblia: the effects of extracts and fractions from Mentha x piperita Lin. (Lamiaceae) on trophozoites

Giardia lamblia is a parasite that causes giardiasis in humans and other mammals. The common treatment includes different classes of drugs, which were described to produce unpleasant side effects. Mentha x piperita, popularly known as peppermint, is a plant that is frequently used in the popular medicine to treat gastrointestinal symptoms. We examined the effects of crude extracts and fractions from peppermint against G. lamblia (ATCC 30888) on the basis of trophozoite growth, morphology and adherence studies. The methanolic, dichloromethane and hexanic extracts presented IC(50) values of 0.8, 2.5 and 9.0microg/ml after 48h of incubation, respectively. The aqueous extract showed no effect against the trophozoites with an IC(50)>100microg/ml. The aqueous fraction presented a moderate activity with an IC(50) of 45.5microg/ml. The dichloromethane fraction showed the best antigiardial activity, with an IC(50) of 0.75microg/ml after 48h of incubation. The morphological and adhesion assays showed that this fraction caused several alterations on plasma membrane surface of the parasite and inhibited the adhesion of G. lamblia trophozoites. Cytotoxic assays showed that Mentha x piperita presented no toxic effects on the intestinal cell line IEC-6. Our results demonstrated antigiardial activity of Mentha x piperita, indicating its potential value as therapeutic agent against G. lamblia infections.