Nutritional evaluation of theJessenia bataua palm: Source of high quality protein and oil from tropical America

Current agricultural realities dictate that crops be developed which can be grown with fewer petroleum inputs and on marginal croplands. A palm tree native to the Amazon Valley,Jessenia bataua, found in both swamplands and upland forests has been studied. The fruits of this tree have long been exploited by indigenous peoples as a source of oil and a milk-like drink. Chemical analyses of the oil show it to be similar to olive oil. Chemical and biological assays of the mesocarp pulp protein reveal its quality to be comparable to that of good animal protein and considerably better than most grain and legume proteins. Rats fed diets containingJessenia bataua mesocarp oil and pulp showed normal weight gains when compared to those fed diets with similar quanities of corn oil and casein.Jessenia bataua is an example of a little-known wild plant that could provide a new source of food protein and oil for combating world hunger.     

Remains of palms (Palmae) at archaeological sites in the New World: A review

A review of palm remains recorded at archaeological sites throughout the New World is presented. Remains have been found at 130 sites from the southern United States to southern Uruguay. They are of four kinds: carbonized or dry endocarps or seeds, phytoliths, pollen, and implements. Twenty-nine genera and at least 50 species of palms (i.e., about 9% of all American species) have been recorded. The oldest record dates back to 14,700b.p. for carbonized endocarp fragments of an unidentified palm in Rondônia, Brazil. The use of palms, as recorded from remains, was particularly widespread after 9000b.p. The predominant remains are endocarps ofAcrocomia, Attalea s.l.,Astrocaryum, Bactris, Syagrus, Elaeis, andOenocarpus, all of which are important sources of edible oils or edible fruits and are still widely used by aboriginal peoples. The review supports the hypothesis that human groups have played an important role in the dispersal of some palm species in the neotropics. Humanaided dispersal ofAcrocomia aculeata from South America into Central America, and ofOenocarpus bataua from northwestern Amazonia to other areas, is postulated. Archaeological remains support the hypothesis that pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes) was domesticated in the inter-Andean valleys or on the adjacent Pacific lowlands of Colombia and later introduced into the Amazon Basin.     

Yeasts Associated with Various Amazonian Native Fruits

Yeasts, commonly present on the surface of fruits, are of industrial interest for the production of enzymes, flavorings, and bioactive compounds, and have many other scientific uses. The Amazonian rainforest may be a good source of new species or strains of yeasts, but their presence on Amazonian fruits is unknown. The aim of this study was to identify and characterize yeasts isolated from Amazonian native fruits using molecular and phenotypic methods. In total, 81 yeast isolates were obtained from 10 fruits species. Rep-PCR showed 29 strain profiles. Using a combination of restriction-fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of the 5.8S-ITS region and D1/D2 sequencing of the 26S rRNA gene, 16 species were identified belonging to genera Candida, Debaryomyces, Hanseniaspora, Kodamaea, Martiniozyma, and Meyerozyma. The most dominant species were Candida tropicalis, Debaryomyces hansenii, Hanseniaspora opuntiae, and Hanseniaspora thailandica. H. opuntiae and H. thailandica showed the highest number of the strain profiles. Phenotypic profiles were variable between species, and even among strains. Screening for hydrolases showed lipolytic activity in only one isolate, while proteolytic, cellulolytic and amylolytic capabilities were not detected. Yeast presence among fruits varied, with cidra (Citrus medica) and ungurahui (Oenocarpus bataua) having the highest number of species associated. This investigation broadens the understanding and possible biotechnological uses of yeast strains obtained from Amazonian native fruits.Key words: yeast diversity, fruit, Amazonia, PCR-RFLP, 5.8S-ITS     

Demography of Oenocarpus bataua and implications for sustainable harvest of its fruit in western Amazon

Oenocarpus bataua is the seventh most abundant tree in the Amazon and one of the most used palms in the region. The main resource obtained from the species is the fruits that are harvested from wild populations for human consumption. Across its distribution area adults are most frequently felled to obtain the racemes, which may affect the palm's populations. In this paper we studied the demography of two populations of Oenocarpus bataua to assess the harvest potential of its fruits and the density variation in different habitats in the western Amazon to estimate fruit yields in different forest types. Non-inundated lands held the greatest densities with an average of 11 adults ha⁻¹ (0–132 adults ha⁻¹). The population finite growth rate (λ) in Amacayacu, Colombia, was 0.9103 because of slow growth and low survival of stemless individuals and low recruitment. On the contrary, in Yasuní, Ecuador, we found a growing population with λ = 1.0368. According to our simulations, adult felling reduced transient population growth (λ_t) in both populations, especially when harvest was frequent even at low intensities. In Amacayacu a simulated harvest of 60 % year⁻¹ of the fruits by climbing did not modify λ_t substantially, while in Yasuní, a regime of 80 % of annual harvest did not diminish λ_t below one and the initial number of adults. The results help to understand the demography of useful palms and to address sustainable management. For instance high yields can be obtained by shifting to non-destructive harvest techniques that can meet the increasing demand and maintain the populations.     

Genetic structuring in a Neotropical palm analyzed through an Andean orogenesis‐scenario

Andean orogenesis has driven the development of very high plant diversity in the Neotropics through its impact on landscape evolution and climate. The analysis of the intraspecific patterns of genetic structure in plants would permit inferring the effects of Andean uplift on the evolution and diversification of Neotropical flora. In this study, using microsatellite markers and Bayesian clustering analyses, we report the presence of four genetic clusters for the palm Oenocarpus bataua var. bataua which are located within four biogeographic regions in northwestern South America: (a) Chocó rain forest, (b) Amotape‐Huancabamba Zone, (c) northwestern Amazonian rain forest, and (d) southwestern Amazonian rain forest. We hypothesize that these clusters developed following three genetic diversification events mainly promoted by Andean orogenic events. Additionally, the distinct current climate dynamics among northwestern and southwestern Amazonia may maintain the genetic diversification detected in the western Amazon basin. Genetic exchange was identified between the clusters, including across the Andes region, discarding the possibility of any cluster to diversify as a distinct intraspecific variety. We identified a hot spot of genetic diversity in the northern Peruvian Amazon around the locality of Iquitos. We also detected a decrease in diversity with distance from this area in westward and southward direction within the Amazon basin and the eastern Andean foothills. Additionally, we confirmed the existence and divergence of O. bataua var. bataua from var. oligocarpus in northern South America, possibly expanding the distributional range of the latter variety beyond eastern Venezuela, to the central and eastern Andean cordilleras of Colombia. Based on our results, we suggest that Andean orogenesis is the main driver of genetic structuring and diversification in O. bataua within northwestern South America.     

Valorization of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) fruit processing by-products and wastes using bioprocess technology – Review

The date palm Phoenix dactylifera has played an important role in the day-to-day life of the people for the last 7000 years. Today worldwide production, utilization and industrialization of dates are continuously increasing since date fruits have earned great importance in human nutrition owing to their rich content of essential nutrients. Tons of date palm fruit wastes are discarded daily by the date processing industries leading to environmental problems. Wastes such as date pits represent an average of 10% of the date fruits. Thus, there is an urgent need to find suitable applications for this waste. In spite of several studies on date palm cultivation, their utilization and scope for utilizing date fruit in therapeutic applications, very few reviews are available and they are limited to the chemistry and pharmacology of the date fruits and phytochemical composition, nutritional significance and potential health benefits of date fruit consumption. In this context, in the present review the prospects of valorization of these date fruit processing by-products and wastes’ employing fermentation and enzyme processing technologies towards total utilization of this valuable commodity for the production of biofuels, biopolymers, biosurfactants, organic acids, antibiotics, industrial enzymes and other possible industrial chemicals are discussed.     

Temporal Variation in Seed Predation by Insects in a Population of Syagrus romanzoffiana (Arecaceae) in Santa Catarina Island, SC, Brazil

Insect seed predation may vary depending on seed production. The present study considers the hypothesis that the rates of seed predation tend to be smaller in years of higher fruit production. Thus, we monitored the production of fruits and predation of seeds of the palm Syagrus romanzoffiana over 2?years in the Atlantic Forest (Parque Municipal da Lagoa do Peri, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil), between July 2006 and June 2008. Plots of 0.25?m² were fitted under 20 mother plants and fruits were monthly collected for assessment of abundance and seed predation. There was variation in fruit production between the 2?years and among reproductive plants. Predation rates were high and occurred in the predispersal phase by the Curculionidae Revena rubiginosa Boheman, Anchylorhynchus aegrotus Fahraeus, and Anchylorhynchus variabilis Gyllenhal. Seed predation by these species of Anchylorhynchus is first registered in the present study. In average, about 60% of the seeds monthly produced in the population tend to escape insect predation in year of high or low production, becoming available for recruitment. The predation rate was not related to the amount of fruits produced per reproductive plant. Also, different than expected, there was a positive relation between the rates of seed predation and the total of fruits produced monthly on the plots. Thus, no evidence for the satiation of insect seed predators was found in this study with S. romanzoffiana.     

Photooxidative Stress Modulation of Endogenous Phytohormone and Antioxidant Accumulations and Fruit Maturity in Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.)

A common modern cultivation practice is bagging the fruit bunch if date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) which may influence fruit maturity and nutraceutical quality. Exposure of fruits to photooxidative stress induces changes in the endogenous concentrations of plant hormones and other metabolites, which may cause accelerated fruit maturity. This study was conducted to examine the effect of exposure to direct and indirect sunlight on date palm fruit development. The indirect sunlight treatment was simulated by fruit bunch bagging, a common practice in modern date production. The exposure of date palm fruits to direct sunlight-induced photooxidative stress causing an increased concentration of ascorbic acid and decreased content of chlorophyll, anthocyanins, carotenoids, and phenols compared to the fruit bagging treatment. Direct sunlight also reduced the concentration of phytohormones, including indoleacetic acid, gibberellin, and zeatin, but increased abscisic acid accumulation. The directly-exposed fruits reached a partially-mature stage (Rutab) in August, whereas the bagged fruits remained at the immature stage (Khalal). This study is the first to describe the biochemical basis of the observed improvement of date palm fruit development in response to reduced light intensity. Besides, it provides insights into controlling date palm fruit maturity and subsequently prolonging the shelf life dates on the tree; thus, extending the marketing period for the benefit of the farmers.

     

Fruit production ofattalea colenda (arecaceae) in coastal ecuador—an alternative oil resource?

Attalea colenda is a monoecious palm found in pastures in coastal Ecuador. In dry regions, it is a valuable source of oil in self-sufficiency farming or in combination with cattle in pastures. The palm was studied over a gradient of dry to humid environments during two fruiting seasons. Palm growth, production of leaves, inflorescences, and infructescences, number of fruits per infructescence, and seed weight of five populations were evaluated. The individual of average size is 15 m tall, which corresponds to approximately 30–40 years of age. No difference in fruit production was recorded between wet and dry regions of coastal Ecuador. The average production of one hectare of pasture, with 50 palms, was 0.9 t of oil per year. One population that was part of an agroforestry system produced 50% more fruits than the average of all populations in pasture.     

Diversity of palm uses in the western Amazon

We used palm knowledge to understand the interaction between people and the rainforests and the factors that influence this dynamic process. We interviewed 278 informants in 12 villages in the Pastaza and Madidi areas of the western Amazon basin. Together they used 38 different palm species for 38 different uses in six use-categories (food, construction, utensils, ritual, medicine, commercial). Euterpe precatoria, Iriartea deltoidea, and Oenocarpus bataua were best known and were mentioned as useful by 76–72% of the informants in the 12 villages. There was a great variation in number of uses and in how widespread the uses were and five of the 38 useful palms were mentioned by only one informant. Among the socioeconomic factors analyzed, the residence village influenced the informants’ knowledge of palms and their uses more than any other factor. Length of education, prosperity and for how long the informant had lived in the village were also positively correlated to how many palms and palm uses were known. Gender differences in informants’ knowledge of palm uses were not observed in our data. We suggest, that the high importance of forest products to the livelihood of the villagers, the great variation in the knowledge they possess, and the fact that the differences between villages is so great, are important elements to consider when developing management plans for the sustainable use of the rainforest resources in the western Amazon.     

Reproductive success of individuals with different fruit production patterns. What does it mean for the predator satiation hypothesis?

The predator satiation hypothesis states that synchronous periodic production of seeds is an adaptive strategy evolved to reduce the pressure of seed predators. The seed production pattern is crucial to the predator satiation hypothesis, but there are few studies documenting the success of individuals that are in synchrony and out of synchrony with the whole population. This study is based on long-term data on seed production of Sorbus aucuparia and specialised pre-dispersal seed predation by Argyresthia conjugella, in a subalpine spruce forest in the Western Carpathians (Poland). At the population level, we tested whether functional and numerical responses of predators to the variation of fruit production operate. At the individual level, we tested whether individuals with higher interannual variability in their own seed crops and higher synchrony with the population have higher percentages of uninfested fruits. The intensity of pre-dispersal seed predation was high (average 70 %; range 19–100 %). There were both functional and numerical responses of predators to the variation of fruit production at the population level. We found that individuals that were expected to be preferred under seed predator pressure had higher reproductive success. With increasing synchrony of fruit production between individual trees and the population, the percentage of infested fruits decreased. There was also a negative relationship between the interannual variation in individual fruit production and the percentage of infested fruits. These results confirm selection for individuals with a masting strategy. However, the population does not seem well adapted to strong seed predation pressure and we suggest that this may be a result of prolonged diapause of A. conjugella.     

Restriction limits and main drivers of fruit production in palm in central Amazonia

Adult plants incapable of producing viable offspring inflate our perception of the size of population distribution. We propose that species occurrence is limited to a subset of the environmental gradient and that it changes as ontogenetic development progresses. Moreover, fruit production is associated with site-specific environmental conditions. We sampled 2988 adult individuals from nine palm species in 30 plots (40 × 250 m) and used a larger data set including 42 other plots distributed along a continuous topo-edaphic gradient in a terra firme forest near Manaus, Brazil. Five out of nine palm species were more restricted to a sub-section of the topo-edaphic gradient in the adult-size phase. More specifically, reproductive individuals of species Attalea attaleoides and A. microcarpa had even more restricted distributions than adult-sized, non-reproductive plants. Successive environmental filtering and competition probably acting through selective mortality led to increasing habitat restriction, with reproductive adults being restricted to a smaller part of the region than juveniles and adults. Water availability and nutrients limited both the ability to produce fruits and the amount of fruit production. Previous studies have reported stronger habitat associations for older plants than for seedlings or juveniles, but we show here that some species are more restricted at their reproductive stage. Plant specializations to local conditions may be more common than currently acknowledged, and a significant portion of individuals in a population might represent sinks. Such strong environmental limitations of reproductive plants should also be considered in management of species with economic value and in conservation planning.     

中国特有植物艾比湖沙拐枣(Calligonum ebi-nuricum)居群内果实性状的变异

以中国荒漠特有植物艾比湖沙拐枣(Calligonum ebi-nuricum)果实形态特征为研究对象,对分布于原产区的同一居群12个样株的果实进行形态特征比较研究。通过每株30粒果实的喙长、果实长度、果实宽度、果实形状、瘦果长度、瘦果宽度、瘦果形状、刺毛长度、头部刺毛长度、两肋间距、两刺间距11个性状指标的数值分析表明：在株内与株间均有变异,株间果实性状变异较株内果实性状变异大;代表果实和瘦果大小指标正相关性极显著（p＜0.01）;两肋间距与瘦果形状呈负相关（r=-0.297**,p＜0.01）。研究结果证明：其果实形状和瘦果形状（长度、宽度及长宽比）较为稳定,可作为艾比湖沙拐枣的分种依据,而其它果实性状可塑性较大,只能作为分类的参考。该研究结果可供沙拐枣属其它种的准确分类参考。     

Demography of Euterpe precatoria and Mauritia flexuosa in the Amazon: application of integral projection models for their harvest

Non‐Timber Forest Products like palm fruits are fundamental in the livelihood of Amerindian groups. For the last 10 years the fruits of wild palm species, like Euterpe precatoria and Mauritia flexuosa, have been entering into global markets. These species are mostly harvested felling the adults, a practice that may have a disproportionate impact in the conservation of the populations. We studied the demography of E. precatoria and M. flexuosa, two important palms of the Amazon, using integral projection models, to characterize the population dynamics and project impact of different fruit harvest methods: adult felling and direct fruit harvest. We followed over 1400 individuals from populations with low harvest intensities in the Tikuna community of Amacayacu, Amazonas, Colombia from 2011 to 2013, establishing four plots for E. precatoria in seasonally inundated forests and two for M. flexuosa in swamps. The population growth in E. precatoria was slightly declining, whereas M. flexuosa was stable. As expected, the simulations of adult felling diminished λ and the number of available adults under any scenario for either species. On the contrary, the simulations support existing information that climbing and other non‐destructive harvest methods would probably allow a sustainable management, satisfying the demand and preserving wild populations.     

Queen palm fruit selection and foraging techniques of squirrels in the Atlantic Forest

Queen palm seeds (Syagrus romanzoffiana) are a vital source of nutrients for Ingram's squirrel (Guerlinguetus ingrami), a common inhabitant of the Atlantic forest biome of Brazil. G. ingrami acts as both a seed predator and disperser of this important palm; however, little is known about how G. ingrami selects or efficiently opens queen palm seeds. The objectives of this study were to: (1) investigate the squirrel's capacity to determine the germinal orifice among the fruit's three pores, which permits more efficient opening of the fruit; (2) assess whether the thickness and size of the fruit endocarp influence the squirrel's palm selection during foraging; and (3) evaluate whether the rodents preferentially select fruits with invertebrate infestations. To answer these questions, we used a series of behavioral experiments measuring patterns of squirrel feeding behavior (fruit opening, fruit selection, and patch selection), controlling for environmental variables. We found that (1) squirrels identify the queen palm germinal pore by its greater relative depth to the other pores; (2) the average size and thickness of fruit does not influence the squirrel's choice of palm for foraging; and (3) squirrels preferentially consume fruits infested by invertebrates. The development of methods for more efficient processing of queen palm fruit highlights the importance of this resource for G. ingrami. In addition, due to its preferential selection of infested fruits, G. ingrami may benefit palms by reducing parasite population loads.     

The effects of utilization by people and livestock on Hyphaene petersiana (Arecaceae) basketry resources in the palm savanna of North-Central Namibia

Basketry production is an important informal sector activity in the palm savanna of north-central Namibia, particularly for women. This study assesses the comparative impact of utilization by basket makers and browsing livestock in areas of different human and livestock population pressures on the source of weaving fibre, leaves from juvenile individuals of the vegetable ivory palm,Hyphaene petersiana. Mature individuals of this species are an important source of edible fruit. Destructive uses of mature individuals such as tapping for palm wine and the cutting of stems for construction purposes are also practised, even though they are forbidden by customary law. Unlike other centres of basket production in southern Africa, the level of leaf utilization for basketry is low and there is potential for greater use of this resource. Despite the unpalatability of this species, a cause for concern, however, is the intensity of browsing by domestic livestock on young palms, which may affect the future structure and viability of the palm population in north-central Namibia. This predicted degradation of a multiple-use species such asH. petersiana represents the gradual erosion of an important buffer against rural poverty, loss of income and reduction in food security.     

Do frugivorous birds concentrate their foraging activities on those alien plants with the most abundant and nutritious fruits in the South African Mediterranean-climate region?

Alien plants with abundant and nutritious fruits may compete more effectively for avian dispersal services than native shrubs. This premise was examined by comparing daily foraging activity (visitation frequency, foraging bird number and foraging period) by four frugivorous bird species of different size on fruits of two native and two alien shrub species co-occurring at four different sites. Also, the quantities of seeds consumed daily by each of the four birds species from fruits of the four shrub species were measured and compared with the numbers of fruits and seeds, and the mass of fruits present in the shrub canopies as well as with their fruit monosaccharide concentrations. The quantities of seed consumed daily by four different size bird species (Columba arquatrix, Colius striatus, Pycnonotus capensis, Zosterops pallidus subsp capensis) were positively correlated with the numbers of seeds per m² of canopy area and with fruit mass and fruit monosaccharide content per m² of canopy area, as well as with the monosaccharide concentration of individual fruits, except in the C. arquatrix (African olive pigeon). All four bird species displayed the highest daily visitation frequencies on fruits of the alien Solanum mauritianum which were more abundant and nutritious than fruits of the other alien Lantana camara and fruits the natives Olea europaea subsp africana and Chrysanthemoides monilifera. They also all consumed greater quantities of seed daily from fruits of the alien S. mauritianum than from fruits of the other shrub species. These results corroborate proposals that frugivorous birds concentrate their foraging activities on those alien plants with the most abundant and nutritious fruits.     

Influence of Fruit Availability on Ecological Overlap among Four Neotropical Primates at Tinigua National Park,Colombia1

Data on fruit abundance and ecological overlap among Ateles belzebuth, Lagothrix lagothricha, Cebus apella, andAlouatta seniculus were gathered during 13 months at Tinigua National Park (Colombia), in an effort to test the following hypotheses concerning competition for fruits. Coexistence is possible because: (1) during periods when fruit availability is limited, the species utilize different resources; and (2) the species have different fruit preferences independent of fruit production in the forest. Differences were found in resource use (diet and habitat) for all four species. Despite these differences, all four devoted large proportions of time feeding on fruit. Fruit abundance influenced their activity patterns. Ninety percent of all interspecific aggressive interactions (TV = 69) were seen in fruiting trees. The first hypothesis was best supported, given that all species significantly increased their intake of the vegetative parts of plants during periods of fruit scarcity. Fruit partitioning during periods of scarcity was observed clearly only for one pair of species (C. apella and L. lagothricha). In general, the second hypothesis was not supported as a mechanism for reducing competition because most fruit species were consumed by more than one primate species. Fruit preferences, however, may be particularly important in explaining differences in niche overlap between the most ecologically similar species: A. belzebuth relied heavily on the fruits of one palm species (Oenocarpus bataud) during periods of fruit scarcity and abundance, while L. lagothricha completely ignored this fruit.     

Commercial techniques for preserving date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) fruit quality and safety: A review

The popularity of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) fruit is increasing, therefore the demand for high-quality date palm fruit with less or no chemical treatment is the topic of interest for date producers and consumers. The quality of date palm fruit is much dependent on its postharvest handling and processing. For preventing the degradation and maintenance of the high quality of dates during the storage an appropriate harvest and post-harvest processes are required. The process should control the biotic and abiotic factors like insects, fungus, temperature, as well as handling and processing of dates. Therefore, in this work, we reviewed the literature related to the protection of date fruits during their post-harvest life. The commercially viable advance and updated techniques that can be used to avoid storage losses and problems while keeping fruit quality (nutritional, color, flavor, and texture) and microbial safety under optimal conditions are discussed.     

Determinants of fruit removal in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Geonoma pauciflora</Emphasis>, an understory palm of neotropical forests

Competition for seed dispersers is supposedly a selective force that drives the evolution of plant reproductive traits. In the understory of tropical forests, such competition should be especially severe among bird-dispersed plant species because (i) the production of copious fruit crops is limited by low light availability; (ii) there usually is a high density of fleshy fruited plants, and (iii) understory frugivorous birds are not abundant. In this paper, we took advantage of a high-density population of Geonoma pauciflora, a bird-dispersed palm species growing in the understory of the Brazilian Atlantic forest, to investigate the influence of plant traits and its immediate neighborhood on fruit removal. Intrinsic (crop and fruit sizes) and extrinsic traits (related to light availability) affected the fruit removal of G. pauciflora. Crop size had a greater influence than fruit size on the absolute number of fruits removed, whereas none of the investigated traits influenced decisively fruit removal efficiency (i.e., the proportion of an individual’s crop removed). The influence of light availability was mostly indirect, through its positive influence on fruit production. A significant positive spatial autocorrelation in removal efficiency occurred among neighboring plants within a 7-m radius, which is indicative of facilitation among neighboring individuals. The consequence of such positive spatial autocorrelation in removal efficiency for clonal plants such as G. pauciflora is that by attracting a frugivore a given ramet may promote the removal of fruits of other ramets, thus enhancing the reproductive output of the genet as a whole.