Water availability drives aboveground biomass and bird richness in forest restoration plantings to achieve carbon and biodiversity cobenefits

To combat global warming and biodiversity loss, we require effective forest restoration that encourages recovery of species diversity and ecosystem function to deliver essential ecosystem services, such as biomass accumulation. Further, understanding how and where to undertake restoration to achieve carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation would provide an opportunity to finance ecosystem restoration under carbon markets. We surveyed 30 native mixed‐species plantings in subtropical forests and woodlands in Australia and used structural equation modeling to determine vegetation, soil, and climate variables most likely driving aboveground biomass accrual and bird richness and investigate the relationships between plant diversity, aboveground biomass accrual, and bird diversity. We focussed on woodland and forest‐dependent birds, and functional groups at risk of decline (insectivorous, understorey‐nesting, and small‐bodied birds). We found that mean moisture availability strongly limits aboveground biomass accrual and bird richness in restoration plantings, indicating potential synergies in choosing sites for carbon and biodiversity purposes. Counter to theory, woody plant richness was a poor direct predictor of aboveground biomass accrual, but was indirectly related via significant, positive effects of stand density. We also found no direct relationship between aboveground biomass accrual and bird richness, likely because of the strong effects of moisture availability on both variables. Instead, moisture availability and patch size strongly and positively influenced the richness of woodland and forest‐dependent birds. For understorey‐nesting birds, however, shrub cover and patch size predicted richness. Stand age or area of native vegetation surrounding the patch did not influence bird richness. Our results suggest that in subtropical biomes, planting larger patches to higher densities, ideally using a diversity of trees and shrubs (characteristics of ecological plantings) in more mesic locations will enhance the provision of carbon and biodiversity cobenefits. Further, ecological plantings will aid the rapid recovery of woodland and forest bird richness, with comparable aboveground biomass accrual to less diverse forestry plantations.     

Sugarcane and Eucalyptus plantation equally limit the movement of two forest‐dependent understory bird species

Habitat fragmentation results in landscape configuration, which affects the species that inhabit it. As a consequence, natural habitat is replaced by different anthropogenic plantation types (e.g. pasture, agriculture, forestry plantations and urban areas). Anthropogenic plantations are important for biodiversity maintenance because some species or functional groups can use it as a complementary habitat. However, depending on plantation permeability, it can act as a barrier to the movement of organisms between habitat patches, such as forest fragments, reducing functional connectivity for many species. Anthropogenic plantations are becoming the most common land use and cover type in the Anthropocene and biodiversity conservation in fragmented landscapes requires information on how different plantation types affect the capacity of the species to move through the landscape. In this study, we evaluated the influence of the type and structure of plantations on the movement of two forest‐dependent understory bird species – plain antvireo (Dysithamnus mentalis) and flavescent warbler (Myiothlyps flaveola) – within a highly fragmented landscape of Atlantic Forest hotspot. Knowing that forestry plantation is assumed to be more permeable to dependent forest bird species than open ones, we selected six study areas containing a forest fragment and surrounding plantation: three with sugarcane plantation and three with Eucalyptus sp. plantation. We used playback calls to stimulate the birds to leave forest fragments and traverse the plantations. Control trials were also carried out inside the forest fragments to compare the distances crossed. We observed that individuals moved longer distances inside forest than between plantation types, which demonstrate that plantations do constrict the movements of both species. The two plantation types equally impeded the movements of the species, suggesting the opposite of the general assumption that forestry plantations are more permeable. Our results indicate that, for generalist species, plantation type does not matter, but its presence negatively impacts movement of these bird species. We highlight that plantations have negative influences on the movements of common bird species, and discuss why this is important when setting conservation priorities.     

Multiple successional pathways in human‐modified tropical landscapes: new insights from forest succession,forest fragmentation and landscape ecology research

Old‐growth tropical forests are being extensively deforested and fragmented worldwide. Yet forest recovery through succession has led to an expansion of secondary forests in human‐modified tropical landscapes (HMTLs). Secondary forests thus emerge as a potential repository for tropical biodiversity, and also as a source of essential ecosystem functions and services in HMTLs. Such critical roles are controversial, however, as they depend on successional, landscape and socio‐economic dynamics, which can vary widely within and across landscapes and regions. Understanding the main drivers of successional pathways of disturbed tropical forests is critically needed for improving management, conservation, and restoration strategies. Here, we combine emerging knowledge from tropical forest succession, forest fragmentation and landscape ecology research to identify the main driving forces shaping successional pathways at different spatial scales. We also explore causal connections between land‐use dynamics and the level of predictability of successional pathways, and examine potential implications of such connections to determine the importance of secondary forests for biodiversity conservation in HMTLs. We show that secondary succession (SS) in tropical landscapes is a multifactorial phenomenon affected by a myriad of forces operating at multiple spatio‐temporal scales. SS is relatively fast and more predictable in recently modified landscapes and where well‐preserved biodiversity‐rich native forests are still present in the landscape. Yet the increasing variation in landscape spatial configuration and matrix heterogeneity in landscapes with intermediate levels of disturbance increases the uncertainty of successional pathways. In landscapes that have suffered extensive and intensive human disturbances, however, succession can be slow or arrested, with impoverished assemblages and reduced potential to deliver ecosystem functions and services. We conclude that: (i) succession must be examined using more comprehensive explanatory models, providing information about the forces affecting not only the presence but also the persistence of species and ecological groups, particularly of those taxa expected to be extirpated from HMTLs; (ii) SS research should integrate new aspects from forest fragmentation and landscape ecology research to address accurately the potential of secondary forests to serve as biodiversity repositories; and (iii) secondary forest stands, as a dynamic component of HMTLs, must be incorporated as key elements of conservation planning; i.e. secondary forest stands must be actively managed (e.g. using assisted forest restoration) according to conservation goals at broad spatial scales.     

Variability of sun‐induced chlorophyll fluorescence according to stand age‐related processes in a managed loblolly pine forest

Leaf fluorescence can be used to track plant development and stress, and is considered the most direct measurement of photosynthetic activity available from remote sensing techniques. Red and far‐red sun‐induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) maps were generated from high spatial resolution images collected with the HyPlant airborne spectrometer over even‐aged loblolly pine plantations in North Carolina (United States). Canopy fluorescence yield (i.e., the fluorescence flux normalized by the light absorbed) in the red and far‐red peaks was computed. This quantifies the fluorescence emission efficiencies that are more directly linked to canopy function compared to SIF radiances. Fluorescence fluxes and yields were investigated in relation to tree age to infer new insights on the potential of those measurements in better describing ecosystem processes. The results showed that red fluorescence yield varies with stand age. Young stands exhibited a nearly twofold higher red fluorescence yield than mature forest plantations, while the far‐red fluorescence yield remained constant. We interpreted this finding in a context of photosynthetic stomatal limitation in aging loblolly pine stands. Current and future satellite missions provide global datasets of SIF at coarse spatial resolution, resulting in intrapixel mixture effects, which could be a confounding factor for fluorescence signal interpretation. To mitigate this effect, we propose a surrogate of the fluorescence yield, namely the Canopy Cover Fluorescence Index (CCFI) that accounts for the spatial variability in canopy structure by exploiting the vegetation fractional cover. It was found that spatial aggregation tended to mask the effective relationships, while the CCFI was still able to maintain this link. This study is a first attempt in interpreting the fluorescence variability in aging forest stands and it may open new perspectives in understanding long‐term forest dynamics in response to future climatic conditions from remote sensing of SIF.     

The potential of paleoecology for functional forest restoration planning: lessons from Late Holocene Italian pollen records

We describe forest landscape transformations during the last two millennia in the Italian peninsula by analyzing local (Rieti basin – Lago Lungo) and regional (RF93-30 Adriatic Sea) sediment cores. We identify a dynamic forest ecosystem through paleoecologic reconstruction and consider potential interventions for effective restoration of the most ancient, least disturbed forest ecosystem. The most degraded ecosystems in consequence of human activities were hygrophilous (wet) and mesic forests. In the Rieti Basin, degraded forest ecosystems on mountain slopes are undergoing some degree of forest succession and have less need of restoration. However, management plans for biodiversity, ecosystem services and resources conservation are needed to achieve more sustainable development. In Rieti, the paleoecological investigation revealed a dramatic decrease of deciduous wet and mesic tree taxa through time due to human landscape transformation. The starting point for restoration of a Mediterranean forest ecosystem that preserves natural biodiversity and associated ecosystem services requires recreating some portion of the floodplain wetland ecological niche. Once floodplain forest ecological niche has been recreated, the original ecosystem composed of Alnus, Fraxinus excelsior, Tilia spp., Carpinus betulus and Acer spp., all species which today are rare, should be planted on the basis of microsite characteristics and tree autoecology.     

Unexpectedly diverse forest dung beetle communities in degraded rain forest landscapes in Madagascar

Tropical forests, which harbor high levels of biodiversity, are being lost at an alarming speed. Madagascar, a biodiversity hotspot, has lost more than half of its original forest cover. Most of the remaining forests are small fragments of primary and secondary forest with differing degrees of human impact. These forests, as well as coffee and fruit plantations, may be important in supporting the forest-dependent biodiversity in Madagascar but this has been little studied. In Madagascar, dung beetles, which offer important ecosystem services, are largely restricted to forests. We examined the ability of fragmented and degraded forests to support dung beetle diversity, compared to the large areas of primary forest in eastern Madagascar. We found a general trend of a reduction of species with a loss of forest connectivity. In contrast, a higher level of forest disturbance was associated with higher species diversity. In several sites of low-quality forest as many or more species were found as in less disturbed and primary forests. The average size of dung beetles was smaller in the lower quality localities than in the primary forests. These findings suggest that many forest dung beetles in Madagascar are better adapted to forest disturbance than earlier expected, although they require some level of connectivity to surrounding forest.     

The impact of land conversion on plant biodiversity in the forest zone of Cameroon

Floristic surveys were carried out in different land use systems(primary and secondary forest, fallows of different ages, cocoa plantations,crop fields) within the forest zone of Cameroon, to assess the impact of landconversion on above-ground plant biodiversity. Beside various diversity studies,plant density was measured and diameter at breast height was estimated.The results showed that the forest areas, which represent thehistoric biodiversity of the region, preserve the greatest number of species(160 species in primary forest and 171 in secondary forest). Our resultsindicate the relatively great importance of secondary forests as refuge areasfor primary forest plant species that may function as a starting point forpossible regeneration of original biodiversity. Species richness is reducedprogressively from the original forest (160 spp.) and secondary forests (171spp.), to Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae) fallow fields(149 spp.), to an old fallow field (139 spp.), to a cocoa plantation (116 spp.)and to the farmland (64 spp.), where only weeds and crops contribute essentiallyto plant biodiversity. Also the number of species that are used for non-timberproducts (construction, food and medicines) decreased with increased landconversion.     

林隙干扰对森林生态系统的影响

林隙干扰通过改变森林微生境异质性和群落演替进程,对森林物种组成、林分结构和系统功能产生重要影响。本研究评述了有关林隙干扰对森林生态系统影响的最新研究进展,从物种生物学特性和环境因素两个方面分析了林隙干扰对森林物种组成变化的影响规律,基于群落组件和群落架构阐述了林隙干扰对森林结构的作用关系,梳理了林隙干扰对森林生态系统功能的影响机制。基于已有研究的分析和目前森林生态系统经营亟需解决的问题,提出未来研究所需关注的重点领域和问题: 林隙面积阈值确定方法;林隙闭合机制;林隙干扰对森林生态系统过程的影响;林隙干扰与森林生产力的关系。林隙干扰在促进物种更新和提升森林结构复杂性等方面具有优势,因此本研究可为我国低产低效人工林改造提供科学依据。     

Biodiversity and carbon storage are correlated along a land use intensity gradient in a tropical montane forest watershed,Mexico

Tropical montane cloud forest landscapes are changing, and forest conversion to other land uses is a major driver of biodiversity loss. Land use intensification can lead to significant losses in biodiversity and carbon storage (C); however, the impacts may vary greatly depending on land use type, management practices, and environmental context. We investigated how biodiversity and C are related along a gradient of land use intensification characterized by four dominant land uses in the upper part of Antigua River watershed, Mexico. The land uses were montane cloud forest, secondary forest, and traditional and intensive shade coffee plantations. We determined tree species composition, diversity, ecosystem structure, wood density and C content in dominant tree species to assess aboveground biomass (AGB) and C storage within eight study sites across the land use intensity gradient. A total of 83 tree species was recorded. A canonical correspondence analysis indicated that land uses are separated by particular tree species assemblages. Forests had higher basal area, density, and biomass than coffee plantations, however, the traditional shade coffee plantation had values similar to secondary forest. Calculating C using the standard estimate of 50% of AGB resulted in an overestimation of stored C by 5.8 to 4.1% compared to calculations based on actual measurements. Carbon storage in AGB and biodiversity were strongly and positively related across the land use intensity gradient, although the distinction between the two different intensities of coffee plantation management was not consistently as clear as we had expected. Carbon was highest in forest, but secondary forests and traditional shade coffee plantation had similar C, while intensive coffee had the lowest C content. These results highlight the importance of considering the potential of low intensity land uses such as traditional coffee plantations to mitigate biodiversity loss and preserve ecosystem functions as part of conservation efforts.     

A meta‐analysis of bird and mammal response to short‐rotation woody crops

Short‐rotation woody cropping (SRWC) refers to silvicultural systems designed to produce woody biomass using short harvest cycles (1–15 years), intensive silvicultural techniques, high‐yielding varieties, and often coppice regeneration. Recent emphasis on alternatives to fossil fuels has spurred interest in producing SRWC on privately owned and intensively managed forests of North America. We examined potential bird and small mammal response at the stand level to conversion of existing, intensively managed forests to SRWCs using meta‐analysis of existing studies. We found 257 effect sizes for birds (243 effect sizes) and mammals (14 effect sizes) from 8 studies involving Populus spp. plantations. Diversity and abundance of bird guilds were lower on short‐rotation plantations compared with reference woodlands, while abundance of individual bird species was more variable and not consistently higher or lower on SRWC plantations. Shrub‐associated birds were more abundant on SRWC plantations, but forest‐associated and cavity‐nesting birds were less abundant. Effects on birds appeared to decrease with age of the SRWC plantation, but plantation age was also confounded with variation in the type of reference forest used for comparison. Both guilds and species of mammals were less abundant on SRWC plantations. These conclusions are tentative because none of these studies directly compared SRWC plantations to intensively managed forests. Plantations of SRWCs could contribute to overall landscape diversity in forest‐dominated landscapes by providing shrubby habitat structure for nonforest species. However, extensive conversion of mature or intensively managed forests to SRWC would likely decrease overall diversity, especially if they replace habitat types of high conservation value.     

Ecosystem functions in natural and anthropogenic ecosystems across the East African coastal forest landscape

Habitat identity and landscape configuration significantly shape species communities and affect ecosystem functions. The conservation of natural ecosystems is of particular relevance in regions where landscapes have already been largely transformed into farmland and where habitats suffer under resource exploitation. The spillover of ecosystem functions from natural ecosystems into farmland may positively influence agricultural productivity and human livelihood quality. We measured three proxies of ecosystem functioning: Pollinator diversity (using pan traps), seed dispersal (with a seed removal experiment), and predation (using dummy caterpillars). We assessed these ecosystem functions in three forest types of the East African dry coastal forest (Brachystegia forest, Cynometra forest, and mixed forest), as well as in adjoining farmland and in plantations of exotic trees (Eucalyptus mainly). We measured ecosystem functions at 20 plots for each habitat type, and along gradients ranging from the forest into farmland. We also recorded various environmental parameters for each study plot. We did not find significant differences of ecosystem functions when combining all proxies assessed, neither among the three natural forest types, nor between natural forest and plantations. However, we found trends for single ecosystem functions. We identified highest pollinator diversity along the forest margin and in farmlands. Vegetation cover and blossom density affected the level of predation positively. Based on our findings, we suggest that flowering gardens around housings and woodlots across farmland areas support ecosystem functioning and thus improve human livelihood quality. We conclude that levels of overall ecosystem functions are affected by entire landscapes, and high landscape heterogeneity, as found in our case, might blur potential negative effects and trends arising from habitat destruction and degradation.     

Variation in above‐ground forest biomass across broad climatic gradients

Aim An understanding of the relationship between forest biomass and climate is needed to predict the impacts of climate change on carbon stores. Biomass patterns have been characterized at geographically or climatically restricted scales, making it unclear if biomass is limited by climate in any general way at continental to global scales. Using a dataset spanning multiple climatic regions we evaluate the generality of published biomass–climate correlations. We also combine metabolic theory and hydraulic limits to plant growth to first derive and then test predictions for how forest biomass should vary with maximum individual tree biomass and the ecosystem water deficit. Location Temperate forests and dry, moist and wet tropical forests across North, Central and South America. Methods A forest biomass model was derived from allometric functions and power‐law size distributions. Biomass and climate were correlated using extensive forest plot (276 0.1‐ha plots), wood density and climate datasets. Climate variables included mean annual temperature, annual precipitation, their ratio, precipitation of the driest quarter, potential and actual evapotranspiration, and the ecosystem water deficit. The water deficit uniquely summarizes water balance by integrating water inputs from precipitation with water losses due to solar energy. Results Climate generally explained little variation in forest biomass, and mixed support was found for published biomass–climate relationships. Our theory indicated that maximum individual biomass governs forest biomass and is constrained by water deficit. Indeed, forest biomass was tightly coupled to maximum individual biomass and the upper bound of maximum individual biomass declined steeply with water deficit. Water deficit similarly constrained the upper bound of forest biomass, with most forests below the constraint. Main conclusions The results suggest that: (1) biomass–climate models developed at restricted geographic/climatic scales may not hold at broader scales; (2) maximum individual biomass is strongly related to forest biomass, suggesting that process‐based models should focus on maximum individual biomass; (3) the ecosystem water deficit constrains biomass, but realized biomass often falls below the constraint; such that (4) biomass is not strongly limited by climate in most forests so that forest biomass may not predictably respond to changes in mean climate.     

Transitional forestry in New Zealand: re-evaluating the design and management of forest systems through the lens of forest purpose

Forestry management worldwide has become increasingly effective at obtaining high timber yields from productive forests. In New Zealand, a focus on improving an increasingly successful and largely Pinus radiata plantation forestry model over the last 150 years has resulted in some of the most productive timber forests in the temperate zone. In contrast to this success, the full range of forested landscapes across New Zealand, including native forests, are impacted by an array of pressures from introduced pests, diseases, and a changing climate, presenting a collective risk of losses in biological, social and economic value. As the national government policies incentivise reforestation and afforestation, the social acceptability of some forms of newly planted forests is also being challenged. Here, we review relevant literature in the area of integrated forest landscape management to optimise forests as nature-based solutions, presenting ‘transitional forestry’ as a model design and management paradigm appropriate to a range of forest types, where forest purpose is placed at the heart of decision making. We use New Zealand as a case study region, describing how this purpose-led transitional forestry model can benefit a cross section of forest types, from industrialised forest plantations to dedicated conservation forests and a range of multiple-purpose forests in between. Transitional forestry is an ongoing multi-decade process of change from current ‘business-as-usual’ forest management to future systems of forest management, embedded across a continuum of forest types. This holistic framework incorporates elements to enhance efficiencies of timber production, improve overall forest landscape resilience, and reduce some potential negative environmental impacts of commercial plantation forestry, while allowing the ecosystem functioning of commercial and non-commercial forests to be maximised, with increased public and biodiversity conservation value. Implementation of transitional forestry addresses tensions that arise between meeting climate mitigation targets and improving biodiversity criteria through afforestation, alongside increasing demand for forest biomass feedstocks to meet the demands of near-term bioenergy and bioeconomy goals. As ambitious government international targets are set for reforestation and afforestation using both native and exotic species, there is an increasing opportunity to make such transitions via integrated thinking that optimises forest values across a continuum of forest types, while embracing the diversity of ways in which such targets can be reached.     

Greater than the sum of the parts: how the species composition in different forest strata influence ecosystem function

The mechanisms underpinning forest biodiversity‐ecosystem function relationships remain unresolved. Yet, in heterogeneous forests, ecosystem function of different strata could be associated with traits or evolutionary relationships differently. Here, we integrate phylogenies and traits to evaluate the effects of elevational diversity on above‐ground biomass across forest strata and spatial scales. Community‐weighted means of height and leaf phosphorous concentration and functional diversity in specific leaf area exhibited positive correlations with tree biomass, suggesting that both positive selection effects and complementarity occur. However, high shrub biomass is associated with greater dissimilarity in seed mass and multidimensional trait space, while species richness or phylogenetic diversity is the most important predictor for herbaceous biomass, indicating that species complementarity is especially important for understory function. The strength of diversity‐biomass relationships increases at larger spatial scales. We conclude that strata‐ and scale‐ dependent assessments of community structure and function are needed to fully understand how biodiversity influences ecosystem function.     

Impacts of forest fragmentation on species composition and forest structure in the temperate landscape of southern Chile

Aim Few studies have explicitly examined the influence of spatial attributes of forest fragments when examining the impacts of fragmentation on woody species. The aim of this study was to assess the diverse impacts of fragmentation on forest habitats by integrating landscape‐level and species‐level approaches. Location The investigation was undertaken in temperate rain forests located in southern Chile. This ecosystem is characterized by high endemism and by intensive recent changes in land use. Method Measures of diversity, richness, species composition, forest structure and anthropogenic disturbances were related to spatial attributes of the landscape (size, shape, connectivity, isolation and interior forest area) of forest fragments using generalized linear models. A total of 63 sampling plots distributed in 51 forest fragments with different spatial attributes were sampled. Results Patch size was the most important attribute influencing different measures of species composition, stand structure and anthropogenic disturbances. The abundance of tree and shrub species associated with interior and edge habitats was significantly related to variation in patch size. Basal area, a measure of forest structure, significantly declined with decreasing patch size, suggesting that fragmentation is affecting successional processes in the remaining forests. Small patches also displayed a greater number of stumps, animal trails and cow pats, and lower values of canopy cover as a result of selective logging and livestock grazing in relatively accessible fragments. However, tree richness and β‐diversity of tree species were not significantly related to fragmentation. Main conclusions This study demonstrates that progressive fragmentation by logging and clearance is associated with dramatic changes in the structure and composition of the temperate forests in southern Chile. If this fragmentation process continues, the ability of the remnant forests to maintain their original biodiversity and ecological processes will be significantly reduced.     

Ungulates increase forest plant species richness to the benefit of non‐forest specialists

Large wild ungulates are a major biotic factor shaping plant communities. They influence species abundance and occurrence directly by herbivory and plant dispersal, or indirectly by modifying plant‐plant interactions and through soil disturbance. In forest ecosystems, researchers’ attention has been mainly focused on deer overabundance. Far less is known about the effects on understory plant dynamics and diversity of wild ungulates where their abundance is maintained at lower levels to mitigate impacts on tree regeneration. We used vegetation data collected over 10 years on 82 pairs of exclosure (excluding ungulates) and control plots located in a nation‐wide forest monitoring network (Renecofor). We report the effects of ungulate exclusion on (i) plant species richness and ecological characteristics, (ii) and cover percentage of herbaceous and shrub layers. We also analyzed the response of these variables along gradients of ungulate abundance, based on hunting statistics, for wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Outside the exclosures, forest ungulates maintained higher species richness in the herbaceous layer (+15%), while the shrub layer was 17% less rich, and the plant communities became more light‐demanding. Inside the exclosures, shrub cover increased, often to the benefit of bramble (Rubus fruticosus agg.). Ungulates tend to favour ruderal, hemerobic, epizoochorous and non‐forest species. Among plots, the magnitude of vegetation changes was proportional to deer abundance. We conclude that ungulates, through the control of the shrub layer, indirectly increase herbaceous plant species richness by increasing light reaching the ground. However, this increase is detrimental to the peculiarity of forest plant communities and contributes to a landscape‐level biotic homogenization. Even at population density levels considered to be harmless for overall plant species richness, ungulates remain a conservation issue for plant community composition.     

Growing biodiverse carbon‐rich forests

Regrowing forests on cleared land is a key strategy to achieve both biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation globally. Maximizing these co‐benefits, however, remains theoretically and technically challenging because of the complex relationship between carbon sequestration and biodiversity in forests, the strong influence of climate variability and landscape position on forest development, the large number of restoration strategies possible, and long time‐frames needed to declare success. Through the synthesis of three decades of knowledge on forest dynamics and plant functional traits combined with decision science, we demonstrate that we cannot always maximize carbon sequestration by simply increasing the functional trait diversity of trees planted. The relationships between plant functional diversity, carbon sequestration rates above ground and in the soil are dependent on climate and landscape positions. We show how to manage ‘identities’ and ‘complementarities’ between plant functional traits to achieve systematically maximal cobenefits in various climate and landscape contexts. We provide examples of optimal planting and thinning rules that satisfy this ecological strategy and guide the restoration of forests that are rich in both carbon and plant functional diversity. Our framework provides the first mechanistic approach for generating decision‐makingrules that can be used to manage forests for multiple objectives, and supports joined carbon credit and biodiversity conservation initiatives, such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation REDD+. The decision framework can also be linked to species distribution models and socio‐economic models to find restoration solutions that maximize simultaneously biodiversity, carbon stocks, and other ecosystem services across landscapes. Our study provides the foundation for developing and testing cost‐effective and adaptable forest management rules to achieve biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and other socio‐economic co‐benefits under global change.     

Landscape mosaic of Araucaria forest and forest monocultures influencing understorey spider assemblages in southern Brazil

Abstract This study investigates how abundance, diversity and composition of understorey spiders were influenced by four different forest habitats in a southern Brazilian Araucaria forest. The study area encompasses a landscape mosaic comprised of Araucaria forest, Araucaria plantation, Pinus plantation, and Eucalyptus plantation. Understorey spiders were collected by beating the vegetation inside three patches of each forest habitat. To assess possible predictors of spider assemblage structure, several patch features were analysed: potential prey abundances, estimation of vegetation cover, diversity index of vegetation types, patch ages, patch areas, and geographical distance between patches. To assess the influence of high‐level taxa approaches on spider assemblage patterns, analyses were carried out individually for family, genera and species levels. Additionally, Mantel tests were carried out in underlying similarity matrices between each taxon. Significant differences in spider abundances among forest habitats were found. Pinus plantations showed the highest abundance of spiders and Eucalyptus plantations showed the lowest abundance. Spider abundance was significantly influenced by patch ages, geographical distance and vegetation cover. Expected numbers of families, genera and species did not vary among forest habitats. Spider composition of two Eucalyptus patches differed from the other forest patches, probably due to their low vegetation cover and isolation. Genera composition was the best correlate of species composition, showing that a higher‐level surrogate can be an alternative to the species approach. The understorey spider diversity in this managed area could be maintained when suitable habitat structures are provided, thus ensuring the connectivity between different habitat types. Further studies should focus on individual species responses to the conversion of native forest to monocultures.     

Quantifying resilience of multiple ecosystem services and biodiversity in a temperate forest landscape

Resilience is increasingly being considered as a new paradigm of forest management among scientists, practitioners, and policymakers. However, metrics of resilience to environmental change are lacking. Faced with novel disturbances, forests may be able to sustain existing ecosystem services and biodiversity by exhibiting resilience, or alternatively these attributes may undergo either a linear or nonlinear decline. Here we provide a novel quantitative approach for assessing forest resilience that focuses on three components of resilience, namely resistance, recovery, and net change, using a spatially explicit model of forest dynamics. Under the pulse set scenarios, we explored the resilience of nine ecosystem services and four biodiversity measures following a one‐off disturbance applied to an increasing percentage of forest area. Under the pulse + press set scenarios, the six disturbance intensities explored during the pulse set were followed by a continuous disturbance. We detected thresholds in net change under pulse + press scenarios for the majority of the ecosystem services and biodiversity measures, which started to decline sharply when disturbance affected >40% of the landscape. Thresholds in net change were not observed under the pulse scenarios, with the exception of timber volume and ground flora species richness. Thresholds were most pronounced for aboveground biomass, timber volume with respect to the ecosystem services, and ectomycorrhizal fungi and ground flora species richness with respect to the biodiversity measures. Synthesis and applications. The approach presented here illustrates how the multidimensionality of stability research in ecology can be addressed and how forest resilience can be estimated in practice. Managers should adopt specific management actions to support each of the three components of resilience separately, as these may respond differently to disturbance. In addition, management interventions aiming to deliver resilience should incorporate an assessment of both pulse and press disturbances to ensure detection of threshold responses to disturbance, so that appropriate management interventions can be identified.     

Replanting of first‐cycle oil palm results in a second wave of biodiversity loss

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