尺度分析对景观格局指标的影响

采用优势规则和随机规则为基础的两种尺度分析方法,对分类的TM数据进行了尺度变换分析。结果表明,随着尺度(粒度)增加,优势规则处理法使景观中优势类型的面积增加,非优势类型的面积减少,随机规则处理法使各景观类型的面积基本上保持不变,随尺度变大,整个景观和多数类型的最大斑块面积指标增加;最小斑块面积等于尺度大小的平方;平均斑块面积都增加;斑块数迅速减少,在优势规则系列中,多样性指标减小,而在随机规则处理中,基本没有变化,聚集度随尺度的增大而减小,但测量尺度固定的情况下,随图分辨率的提高而增大,随尺度的增加,Moran’s Ⅰ指标减小,景观类型在空间上趋于随机分布,但是测量尺度固定的情况下,随图分辨率的提高而增大,景观类型在空间上趋于聚集分布。     

基于Kappa系数的景观变化测度——以辽宁省中部城市群为例

分析了辽宁省中部城市群1988～1998年间的景观变化,结果表明沼泽地从景观中完全消失,沙地的变化弹性最大,耕地的变化最小。优势景观类型(耕地)的转化方向较多,非优势景观类型(沙地)转化的方向少。某些景观类型之间较稳定地相互转化(林地和耕地) ,但某些景观类型之间转化极不稳定(耕地和沼泽地)。总体上,景观的变化趋势是:居住用地面积增加,占居了周围的耕地,促进了耕地向菜地的转化。面积大的景观类型变化小(林地和耕地) ,相反,面积小的类型变化大。Kappa系数分析结果表明,位置、数量、随机和标准Kappa系数都降低,即景观在数量上丢失3.86 %的信息,位置上丢失5 .95 %的信息,丢失的综合信息为6 .89%。而且建议进行综合信息评价时用随机Kappa系数,因为它既不考虑数量,又不考虑位置的影响。虽然Kappa系数从位置、数量和综合信息方面揭示了景观变化,但是这些分析是单方面的,而且没有说明在整个图的一致率中由于空间位置、数量和偶然因子所引起的一致率和变化率。景观变化过程中,不考虑空间位置和数量的情况下,景观在空间上随机分布,某个象元属于某个类型的概率等于1/ J(J=类型总数) (8% )。随景观中类型数量的减少,偶然一致率所占的比重增加,因此建议对单个类型不要进行一致性分析。位置一致率在整个一致率中     

基于CA-Markov模型的三川流域景观格局分析及动态预测

以济南南部山区三川流域为研究对象,在ArcGIS和IDRISI平台的支持下,结合景观生态学原理,运用景观指数并引入Kappa系数对三川流域1990-2010年景观格局、动态度进行分析,最后运用CA-Markov模型对流域景观格局进行动态趋势预测.景观格局指数分析表明:三川流域景观类型以耕地、林地、建设用地和草地为主;受人类活动影响,1990-2010年三川流域耕地、林地面积减少,其余各景观面积均呈增加趋势;流域整体景观破碎度增加,斑块复杂度提高,各景观类型的分布渐趋均衡.景观格局变化前10年比后10年明显,人类活动对当地生态环境的影响较显著.Kappa系数表明:景观变化由各景观数量比例变化逐渐转变为各景观数量保持相对稳定下的景观空间位置上的变化.随着2000年后政策的引导,景观整体的变化渐趋稳定,人类活动对生态环境影响有所下降.CA-Markov模型预测结果表明,2010-2020年流域内各景观优势度下降,景观破碎度降低,均衡性持续提高;景观间的转入转出幅度不大,仅占总面积的3.08％,景观类型的转变主要发生在斑块交界处.总的来看,三川流域景观格局变化主要是耕地、林地面积减少,建设用地面积增加,生态环境更趋脆弱.     

千岛湖生态保护与建设对景观格局的影响研究

生态保护和生态建设过程对景观格局产生影响并使之发生变化,这种变化又会影响景观的生态过程。应用3s技术和景观指数分析了39年(1964-2003年)内千岛湖库区土地利用和土地覆盖格局的变化。结果显示,斑块总数和景观破碎度基本保持不变,但是各斑块类型的斑块数量、面积和优势度变化非常显著。最优势斑块类型由荒山(占陆地面积的47．44％)演变为马尾松( Pinus massoniana)林(占陆地面积的52．8l％),研究区域内森林植被覆盖率增加。研究还发现景观多样性指数略微下降。景观多样性是对土地利用和覆盖类型丰富度和均匀度的概要度量,并不一定总是和景观功能呈正相关关系。上述变化归因于多项生态保护措施的实施使得自然演替得以实现。景观格局的优化使生态系统的生态功能得到提高,包括生境恢复、生物多样性增加、水土流失减少。森林植被恢复以后,马尾松林斑块的单一化趋势应在今后的生物多样性保护、生态规划和可持续发展中得到重视。     

基于多种方法的景观格局动态变化综合分析——以辽宁省铁岭市为例

景观格局变化一直是景观生态学研究的核心问题之一,也是相关生态和环境过程研究的基础.本文应用3S技术,综合传统的空间统计分析、转移矩阵、景观指数和景观动态指数、Kappa指数系列,并引入模糊Kappa指数方法,以铁岭市2002-2011年间景观格局变化为例进行了综合研究.结果表明:铁岭市景观空间格局在研究时段内发生一定程度的变化.旱地面积大幅增加,水田面积明显减少,各景观类型之间均有相互转化.景观格局总体的变化趋势是形状趋于复杂、异质性增加、破碎化加剧,人为干扰的影响较明显.研究区域2002-2007年综合景观动态度指数明显高于2007-2011年,景观动态总体呈现放缓趋势.通过Kappa指数系列可知,研究时段内研究区景观变化由景观类型之间变化为主逐渐转变为各类斑块位置上的变化为主.应用多种方法进行综合分析更能全面有效地反映景观格局变化.     

河北省森林—草原交错带天然植被景观格局时空尺度效应

为探讨天然植被景观格局时空尺度效应, 利用随机森林分类方法对塞罕坝地区3期(1989、2000和2016年)遥感影像进行图像解译, 并在分层随机抽样调查的基础上通过不断增加缓冲区的方法, 计算基于斑块类型和景观水平的景观指数; 采取尺度图谱分析在时空尺度下不同植被类型景观尺度效应, 并基于信息熵模型明确景观格局分析的最佳空间幅度。结果表明: 1989—2016年期间, 人工林的快速增长致使草地和天然次生林景观面积呈现先降低后增加趋势且破碎化现象严重; 草地和天然次生林在空间尺度上具有相同的变化特征, 而在时间尺度上则呈现不同的变化; 斑块密度、形状指数以及聚集度指数在时空尺度上均具有较强预测性, 且300 m为最佳尺度阈值。不同天然植被类型在时空尺度下其尺度效应也是不同的, 这不仅与植被类型自身对生态环境响应的差异性有关, 也和研究区特殊的人文地理环境密不可分。     

空间幅度变化对景观格局分析的影响

景观格局指数是量化描述景观格局特征的主要方法之一,各种格局指数的尺度依赖性使比较分析景观格局特征和尺度推绎复杂化,分析不同指数随空间幅度变化的一般行为有助于景观格局分析结果的解释和降低空间尺度推绎的复杂性。研究以2种真实景观和27种模拟景观为分析对象,考查了16种常用的景观水平格局指数随空间幅度变化行为。根据这些指数因幅度变化行为可预测性把它们分为两类：第1类随幅度变化可预测性强,指数与幅度之间的关系可用简单的函数关系来表达;这类指数包括缀块数、边界总长、景观形状指数和缀块丰度密度;前两者随幅度增加呈幂函数形式增加,而缀块丰度密度随幅度增加呈幂函数下降,景观形状指数随幅度增加呈直线增加。第2类指数随幅度变化的可预测性较差,指数随幅度的变化存在多种可能(不同形式的增加、减小或保持不变),不可用一种或多种简单的函数关系来描述所有的情况。这类指数包括缀块丰度、缀块密度、边界密度、最大缀块指数、平均缀块面积、缀块面积标准差、缀块面积变异系数、平均缀块形状指数、面积加权平均缀块形状指数、双对数回归分维数、聚集度指数与Shannon多样性指数。第2类指数随幅度的变化行为受景观格局特征和指数本身算法的影响。总体上来说,第2类格局指数随幅度变化呈折线增加或减小;但当景观的缀块类型较多、各类型优势度比较均等、空间分布格局比较随机时,它们随幅度变化形为的可预测性增加,随幅度增加的函数关系主要有3种：幂函数减小、对数函数增加或直线增加,因指数和格局特征不同而异。研究的结果在揭示了常用景观指数随幅度变化的一般关系外,也启示我们在进行景观格局的比较分析,比较景观的幅度应相同或采用尺度效应图(scalograms)更有效。     

福建旅游型海岛景观格局变化——以妈祖圣地湄洲岛为例

在RS和GIS技术支持下,利用1993和2005年遥感资料,选取景观斑块数、多样性指数、均匀度、优势度、分维数、破碎度等反映景观空间格局的指数,对福建省旅游型海岛典型代表湄洲岛的景观格局变化进行了分析。结果表明:1993—2005年,湄洲岛总的景观斑块数明显增加;景观多样性指数虽略有减少,但整体较高;景观破碎化指数呈明显增加趋势;在各景观类型中,建设用地、林地、沙滩及裸岩3种与旅游业紧密相关的景观类型面积增加,破碎化程度提高,受人类干预的强度在加大;耕地、荒草地、坑塘水体、海滩景观斑块类型的面积减少、破碎化程度降低,受人类干预的强度在缩小。     

基于景观尺度的城市冷岛效应研究综述

城市冷岛效应相对于热岛效应而提出,强调景观规划对于优化城市热环境的功能和途径.本文从景观斑块面积、指数、阈值以及景观格局及其相关性等方面分析了水域、绿地与公园冷岛效应研究进展.分析发现:基于景观尺度的城市冷岛效应在面积与形状指数二者谁具有更为显著的冷岛效应方面存在较大争议,对阈值的辨识还不够深入,并且过多关注景观组成而缺乏关于不同景观配置对冷岛效应的影响研究.水域景观的冷岛效应应该多关注形状、宽度以及位置等的影响,而绿地景观的冷岛效应多关注绿地类型、面积、配置和管理方式等,城市公园的冷岛效应还会受到海拔、人类活动等影响.基于此提出几点建议:以阈值研究为主导,对争议问题进一步探求其形成的原因;强化对时间序列的研究;辨识不同景观格局和景观配置对"冷岛"效应的影响;注重尺度和粒度对冷岛效应的影响研究;加强多学科的交叉耦合.     

长白山森林景观边界动态变化研究

通过野外调查、遥感和地理信息系统相结合的方法来研究长白山森林景观边界的动态变化规律,并通过相关性分析,探讨了长白山森林景观破碎化过程和景观边界指数变化的关系。首先对遥感影像进行计算机分类,其次,构建了描述景观边界的指标体系,再次,从景观边界的长度、密度、对比度、形状和多样性5个方面,对长白山森林景观边界的动态在景观类型尺度和景观尺度上进行分析。结果表明,在20多年的时问内,苔原面积减少了3694．8hm^2,云冷杉林的面积减少了130482．03hm^2,阔叶红松林面积增加了41610．4hm^2,岳桦林面积增加了66978hm^2．由于森林砍伐和毁林造田以及其它人类活动(如旅游)的影响,长白山森林景观的破碎化程度趋于增加,景观边界形状趋于复杂景观破碎化过程和景观边界指数变化的相关性分析证实了可以用景观形状指数(LSI)、对比度加权边界密度(CWEI))、边界加权总长度(TEGT)、加权景观形状指数(LSI-WGT)的变化来指示森林景观的破碎化程度。景观边界形状指数的大小还可以用来反映人类活动对景观的影响程度。最后,针对目前长白山森林景观破碎化程度趋于增大的情况,建议采取积极措施,防止长白山森林景观的进一步破碎化,以便更好地保护天然林。     

Modeling spatiotemporal dynamics of krill aggregations: size,intensity, persistence,and coherence with seabirds

Understanding aggregation dynamics of forage species is important for evaluating biophysical scaling in marine ecosystems and heterogeneity of trophic interactions. In particular, zooplankton aggregations are fundamental units of many pelagic systems, but are difficult to observe continuously through space and time. Using an established modeling framework that encompasses a coupled regional oceanographic and individual‐based modeling system, we test the hypothesis that persistence (duration) of krill aggregations is dependent on their size, intensity, and location of formation within the coastal upwelling region of the California Current. In support of this hypothesis, we found that aggregation size is positively related to intensity, whereas persistence has a parabolic response to aggregation size and intensity, indicating the likelihood that large and highly persistent aggregations are rare. Persistence of krill aggregations also depends on formation location within coastal upwelling areas. We found that krill aggregations were more likely to form near a major seabird colony and that some coastal upwelling areas act as sources of aggregations for other areas. Observations of seabird aggregations were used to evaluate the potential structural realism of predicted krill aggregations. Seabird aggregations displayed marked coherence with predicted krill aggregations in space, providing important criteria on the scaling and availability of krill aggregations to breeding and migratory species. Predicting scales of krill aggregation dynamics will benefit ecosystem assessments, and numerical modeling of predator foraging and marine spatial management aimed at ensuring protection of ecologically important areas.     

Formation and maintenance of mating aggregations in a stink bug,Megacopta punctissimum (Montandon) (Heteroptera: Plataspidae)

Adults of a stink bug,Megacopta punctissimum, formed mating aggregations on their host plants: a few pairs in copula and a few bachelor males (males not in copula) stayed in the aggregation and the bachelor males waited for arriving females to mate with. The processes of formation and maintenance of the aggregations were observed using the individual marking technique. Aggregations initiated by 2 males or by 1 male and 1 female were usually joined by 1 or more individuals and lasted for several days, but aggregations initiated by 2 females broke up within 1 h. Aggregations were not maintained by the same members. The residence time (time from joining an aggregation to leaving the aggregation without copulating) of males was longer than that of females. There was a negative correlation between the residence time of males and the number of bachelor males in an aggregation when bugs joined it, while the residence time of females was positively correlated with the number of bachelor males in the aggregation. When bugs copulated after joining an aggregation, the postcopulatory residence time (time from completing copulation to leaving the aggregation) was longer in males than in females. Thus, males had a stronger tendency to initiate and maintain aggregations than females.     

Genetic diversity and genotypic differentiation between the sexes in swarm aggregations decrease inbreeding in the Formosan subterranean termite

The life of a colony of subterranean termites, such as Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), has natural inbreeding and outbreeding cycles. Reproductives of mature colonies can be replaced by their offspring, which increases the degree of inbreeding in each generation. High degrees of inbreeding may lead to inbreeding depression. In this study we focused on mechanisms for inbreeding avoidance during swarming that do not require kin recognition. We investigated genetic differentiation between swarm aggregations (isolation by distance), genetic diversity within swarm aggregations (multiple colony origin) and genetic differentiation between sexes. Alates were collected from five swarm aggregations in New Orleans, La. The genetic make-up of each swarm aggregation was then described by microsatellite genotyping. Alates from the different swarm aggregations were genetically differentiated; however, no isolation by distance up to at least 1000 m was detected. The dispersal distance of alates was sufficient to guarantee mixing of an average of 13 colonies within swarm aggregations. On average, eleven percent of all possible pairs of alates in each swarm aggregation were putative full siblings. Genotypic frequencies differed significantly between males and females. This could not be explained by sex-biased dispersal. We hypothesize sex-biased investment at the colony level to account for this difference. Genetic differentiation between the sexes and dispersal distances sufficient to promote high genetic diversity within swarm aggregations each facilitate inbreeding avoidance. These observations are consistent with the results of previous studies demonstrating that the majority of simple family colonies in Louisiana populations are headed by unrelated and outbred pairs of reproductives. Received 11 August 2005; revised 5 December 2005; accepted 20 December 2005.     

Characterization of large basking shark Cetorhinus maximus aggregations in the western North Atlantic Ocean

Cetorhinus maximus aggregations recorded during extensive aerial survey efforts off the north‐eastern United States between 1980 and 2013 included aggregations centring on sightings with group sizes of at least 30 individuals. These aggregations occurred in summer and autumn months and included aggregation sizes of up to 1398 individuals, the largest aggregation ever reported for this species. The aggregations were associated with sea surface temperatures of 13–24° C and chlorophyll‐a concentrations of 0·4–2·6 mg m^?3 and during one aggregation, a high abundance of zooplankton prey was present. Photogrammetric tools allowed for the estimation of total body lengths ranging between 4 and 8 m. Characterization of these events provides new insight into the potential biological function of large aggregations in this species.     

The role of land cover in bioclimatic models depends on spatial resolution

Aim We explored the importance of climate and land cover in bird species distribution models on multiple spatial scales. In particular, we tested whether the integration of land cover data improves the performance of pure bioclimatic models. Location Finland, northern Europe. Methods The data of the bird atlas survey carried out in 1986–89 using a 10 × 10 km uniform grid system in Finland were employed in the analyses. Land cover and climatic variables were compiled using the same grid system. The dependent and explanatory variables were resampled to 20‐km, 40‐km and 80‐km resolutions. Generalized additive models (GAM) were constructed for each of the 88 land bird species studied in order to estimate the probability of occurrence as a function of (1) climate and (2) climate and land cover variables. Model accuracy was measured by a cross‐validation approach using the area under the curve (AUC) of a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) plot. Results In general, the accuracies of the 88 bird–climate models were good at all studied resolutions. However, the inclusion of land cover increased the performance of 79 and 78 of the 88 bioclimatic models at 10‐km and 20‐km resolutions, respectively. There was no significant improvement at the 40‐km resolution. In contrast to the finer resolutions, the inclusion of land cover variables decreased the modelling accuracy at 80km resolution. Main conclusions Our results suggest that the determinants of bird species distributions are hierarchically structured: climatic variables are large‐scale determinants, followed by land cover at finer resolutions. The majority of the land bird species in Finland are rather clearly correlated with climate, and bioclimate envelope models can provide useful tools for identifying the relationships between these species and the environment at resolutions ranging from 10 km to 80 km. However, the notable contribution of land cover to the accuracy of bioclimatic models at 10–20‐km resolutions indicates that the integration of climate and land cover information can improve our understanding and model predictions of biogeographical patterns under global change.     

Clonal diversity impacts coral cover in Acropora cervicornis thickets: Potential relationships between density,growth, and polymorphisms

As coral reefs decline, cryptic sources of resistance and resilience to stress may be increasingly important for the persistence of these communities. Among these sources, inter‐ and intraspecific diversity remain understudied on coral reefs but extensively impact a variety of traits in other ecosystems. We use a combination of field and sequencing data at two sites in Florida and two in the Dominican Republic to examine clonal diversity and genetic differentiation of high‐ and low‐density aggregations of the threatened coral Acropora cervicornis in the Caribbean. We find that high‐density aggregations called thickets are composed of up to 30 genotypes at a single site, but 47% of genotypes are also found as isolated, discrete colonies outside these aggregations. Genet–ramet ratios are comparable for thickets (0.636) and isolated colonies after rarefaction (0.569), suggesting the composition of each aggregation is not substantially different and highlighting interactions between colonies as a potential influence on structure. There are no differences in growth rate, but a significant positive correlation between genotypic diversity and coral cover, which may be due to the influence of interactions between colonies on survivorship or fragment retention during asexual reproduction. Many polymorphisms distinguish isolated colonies from thickets despite the shared genotypes found here, including putative nonsynonymous mutations that change amino acid sequence in 25 loci. These results highlight intraspecific diversity as a density‐dependent factor that may impact traits important for the structure and function of coral reefs.     

Some patterns of spatial-ontogenetic structure in populations of tuber orchids

Population dynamics, density, and aggregation size of tuberoid orchids have been identified based on mapping, electronic maps constructed with “point processes,” and Ripley function and pair-correlation function. Discrete and discrete-continuous types of spatial structure dominate in populations in optimal ecological conditions. The bounded aggregations of levels I (radius 0.45–0.75 m) and II (radius 1.2–2.5 m) are formed at 3 to 7.5 m². The spatial pattern depends on generative specimens which are related with the “group effect.” The microloci have full ontogenetic structure and may be regarded as elemental populations. They form larger aggregations of levels III and IV with random spatial distribution and continuous bounds. Aggregations of higher level are not formed under worse ecological conditions. Random spatial distribution and incomplete ontogenetic spectrum of microloci are indicators of critical population status.     

Are aggregation-fisheries sustainable? Reef fish fisheries as a case study

Reef fish spawning aggregations are attractive and often lucrative to fish but particularly vulnerable to fishing, with many cases of declines or extirpations. While awareness of the risks of aggregation exploitation has grown substantially in the tropical western Atlantic in the last decade, the phenomenon of aggregation-spawning is little known in the vast Indo-Pacific region where few aggregations are managed or monitored, and are rarely considered in marine-protected area designations. Even in the tropical western Atlantic and Caribbean, marine-protected area planning, until recently, did not typically consider spawning aggregations. Available data and analyses of aggregation-fisheries and aggregating species strongly suggest that: (1) the majority of known aggregations that are exploited are yielding declining landings; (2) aggregating species show greatest overall declines in local fisheries when their aggregations are also exploited; (3) from an economic perspective, aggregation fishing may yield lower prices for fish, or aggregations may be more valuable unexploited, as a source of fish for local fisheries or as tourist attractions; (4) hyperstability can mask declines in aggregation-fisheries, based on fishery-dependent data; (5) monitoring of aggregation catches by either fishery-dependent or fishery-independent means is deceptively challenging. There are also possible ecosystem-level consequences of reducing or eliminating spawning aggregations. We conclude that aggregation-fisheries are likely to be sustainable only for limited subsistence-level use, that the precautionary principle should be more widely applied in aggregation-fisheries and that, despite growing interest in aggregations over the last decade, few of the key biological questions necessary for effective management have been, or are being, addressed.