Reproduction of Varroa destructor in worker brood of Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera)

Reproduction and population growth of Varroa destructor was studied in ten naturally infested, Africanized honeybee (AHB) (Apis mellifera) colonies in Yucatan, Mexico. Between February 1997 and January 1998 monthly records of the amount of pollen, honey, sealed worker and drone brood were recorded. In addition, mite infestation levels of adult bees and worker brood and the fecundity of the mites reproducing in worker cells were determined. The mean number of sealed worker brood cells (10,070 ± 1,790) remained fairly constant over the experimental period in each colony. However, the presence and amount of sealed drone brood was very variable. One colony had drone brood for 10 months and another for only 1 month. Both the mean infestation level of worker brood (18.1 ± 8.4%) and adult bees (3.5 ± 1.3%) remained fairly constant over the study period and did not increase rapidly as is normally observed in European honey bees. In fact, the estimated mean number of mites fell from 3,500 in February 1997 to 2,380 in January 1998. In May 2000 the mean mite population in the study colonies was still only 1,821 mites. The fertility level of mites in this study was much higher (83–96%) than in AHB in Brazil(25–57%), and similar to that found in EHB (76–94%). Mite fertility remained high throughout the entire study and was not influenced by the amount of pollen, honey or worker brood in the colonies. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Effects of temperature and photoperiod on the seasonal timing of Western honey bee colonies and an early spring flowering plant

Temperature and photoperiod are important Zeitgebers for plants and pollinators to synchronize growth and reproduction with suitable environmental conditions and their mutualistic interaction partners. Global warming can disturb this temporal synchronization since interacting species may respond differently to new combinations of photoperiod and temperature under future climates, but experimental studies on the potential phenological responses of plants and pollinators are lacking. We simulated current and future combinations of temperature and photoperiod to assess effects on the overwintering and spring phenology of an early flowering plant species (Crocus sieberi) and the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera). We could show that increased mean temperatures in winter and early spring advanced the flowering phenology of C. sieberi and intensified brood rearing activity of A. mellifera but did not advance their brood rearing activity. Flowering phenology of C. sieberi also relied on photoperiod, while brood rearing activity of A. mellifera did not. The results confirm that increases in temperature can induce changes in phenological responses and suggest that photoperiod can also play a critical role in these responses, with currently unknown consequences for real‐world ecosystems in a warming climate.     

Preparation for disturbance-induced absconding of Cape honeybee colonies (Apis mellifera capensis Esch.)

African honeybees, Apis mellifera, are characterised by frequent disturbance-induced absconding. However, the effectiveness in preparation before such disturbance-induced absconding has not been rigorously quantified yet. We investigated the effectiveness of preparation for disturbance-induced absconding by evaluating colony phenotypes prior to and after absconding in ten colonies of the Cape honeybee, A. m. capensis. Seven non-absconding colonies at the same apiary were used as controls. While seven absconded colonies left neither stores nor brood behind, three colonies abandoned only a small area of honey, pollen, open or capped brood. At the end of the observations, the control colonies still had pollen and honey stores and brood. The mean reduction rate between a major disturbance and the absconding event was 0.052 ± 0.018 cm² stores and open brood per worker per day. Our results demonstrate that disturbance-induced absconding can also occur with preparation, if the disturbance is not highly destructive and enough time for preparation is available. We conclude that Cape honeybee colonies can show a considerable high effectiveness in their preparation before disturbance-induced absconding, which limits the loss of colony resources. In light of the general high mobility of African honeybee colonies such an efficient behaviour is probably adaptive. Received 22 December 2004; revised 3 June 2005; accepted 13 June 2005.     

Africanization of a feral honey bee (Apis mellifera) population in South Texas: does a decade make a difference?

The arrival to the United States of the Africanized honey bee, a hybrid between European subspecies and the African subspecies Apis mellifera scutellata, is a remarkable model for the study of biological invasions. This immigration has created an opportunity to study the dynamics of secondary contact of honey bee subspecies from African and European lineages in a feral population in South Texas. An 11‐year survey of this population (1991–2001) showed that mitochondrial haplotype frequencies changed drastically over time from a resident population of eastern and western European maternal ancestry, to a population dominated by the African haplotype. A subsequent study of the nuclear genome showed that the Africanization process included bidirectional gene flow between European and Africanized honey bees, giving rise to a new panmictic mixture of A. m. scutellata‐ and European‐derived genes. In this study, we examined gene flow patterns in the same population 23 years after the first hybridization event occurred. We found 28 active colonies inhabiting 92 tree cavities surveyed in a 5.14 km² area, resulting in a colony density of 5.4 colonies/km². Of these 28 colonies, 25 were of A. m. scutellata maternal ancestry, and three were of western European maternal ancestry. No colonies of eastern European maternal ancestry were detected, although they were present in the earlier samples. Nuclear DNA revealed little change in the introgression of A. m. scutellata‐derived genes into the population compared to previous surveys. Our results suggest this feral population remains an admixed swarm with continued low levels of European ancestry and a greater presence of African‐derived mitochondrial genetic composition.     

Comparison of the activity and productivity of Carniolan (Apis mellifera carnica Pollmann) and Yemeni (Apis mellifera jemenitica Ruttner) subspecies under environmental conditions of the Al-Ahsa oasis of eastern Saudi Arabia

This study was conducted at the apiary of the Agricultural and Veterinary Training and Research Station of King Faisal University in the Al-Ahsa oasis of eastern Saudi Arabia. We performed a comparison between Carniolan (Apis mellifera carnica Pollmann) and Yemeni (Apis mellifera jemenitica Ruttner) honeybee races to determine the monthly fluctuations in foraging activity, pollen collection, colony growth and honey yield production under the environmental conditions of the Al-Ahsa oasis of eastern Saudi Arabia. We found three peaks in the flight activity of the two races, and the largest peaks occurred during September and October. Compared to Carniolan bee colonies, the performance of Yemeni bee colonies was superior in terms of stored pollen, worker and drone brood rearing, and the adult population size. The Carniolan bee colonies produced 27.77% and 27.50% more honey than the Yemeni bee colonies during the flow seasons of alfalfa and sidir, respectively, with an average increase of 27.64%. It could be concluded that the race of bees is an important factor affecting the activity and productivity of honeybee colonies. The Yemeni bee race produced more pollen, a larger brood and more bees, which exhibited a longer survival. The imported Carniolan bees can be reared in eastern Saudi Arabia, but the Yemeni bee race is still better.     

Natural selection of Varroa jacobsoni explains the different reproductive strategies in colonies of Apis cerana and Apis mellifera

In colonies of European Apis mellifera, Varroa jacobsoni reproduces both in drone and in worker cells. In colonies of its original Asian host, Apis cerana, the mites invade both drone and worker brood cells, but reproduce only in drone cells. Absence of reproduction in worker cells is probably crucial for the tolerance of A. cerana towards V. jacobsoni because it implies that the mite population can only grow during periods in which drones are reared. To test if non-reproduction of V. jacobsoni in worker brood cells of A. cerana is due to a trait of the mites or of the honey-bee species, mites from bees in A. mellifera colonies were artificially introduced into A. cerana worker brood cells and vice versa. Approximately 80% of the mites from A. mellifera colonies reproduced in naturally infested worker cells as well as when introduced into worker cells of A. mellifera and A. cerana. Conversely, only 10% of the mites from A. cerana colonies reproduced, both in naturally infested worker cells of A. cerana and when introduced into worker cells of A. mellifera. Hence, absence of reproduction in worker cells is due to a trait of the mites. Additional experiments showed that A. cerana bees removed 84% of the worker brood that was artificially infested with mites from A. mellifera colonies. Brood removal started 2 days after artificial infestation, which suggests that the bees responded to behaviour of the mites. Since removal behaviour of the bees will have a large impact on fitness of the mites, it probably plays an important role in selection for differential reproductive strategies. Our findings have large implications for selection programmes to breed less-susceptible bee strains. If differences in non-reproduction are mite specific, we should not only look for non-reproduction as such, but for colonies in which non-reproduction in worker cells is selected. Hence, in selection programmes fitness of mites that reproduce in both drone and worker cells should be compared to fitness of mites that reproduce only in drone cells. © Rapid Science Ltd. 1998     

Effect of primer pheromones and pollen diet on the food producing glands of worker honey bees (Apis mellifera L.)

Cooperative brood care is highly developed in the honey bee such that workers called nurses use their hypopharyngeal and mandibular glands to biosynthesize proteinaceous secretions that are progressively provisioned to larvae. The role that honey bee primer pheromones play in the functional physiology of food producing glands was examined. The combined and separate effects of queen mandibular pheromone (QMP) and brood pheromone (BP) on amount of protein extractable from hypopharyngeal and mandibular glands of workers reared for 12 days with and without pollen diets was measured. In rearing environments with a pollen diet, BP, and QMP + BP pheromone treatments significantly increased extractable protein from both glands. Bees reared with QMP + pollen had amounts of protein extractable from both glands that were not significantly different from control bees (no pheromones, no pollen). Pollen in the diet alone significantly increased amounts of protein extractable from glands versus control. In rearing environments without pollen, QMP + BP had a synergizing effect on amount of protein in both glands. The QMP + BP treatment was the only rearing environment without a pollen diet where protein amounts were significantly greater than the control. The synergizing effect of QMP + BP on extractable mandibular and hypopharyngeal gland protein suggests a highly derived role for the combined effect of these two primer pheromones on honey bee cooperative brood care. Mandibular gland area was significantly and positively correlated with extractable protein. Amounts of extractable protein from both glands declined significantly with age of workers in all treatments. However, treatment significantly affected rate of decline. The adaptive significance of gland protein amounts in response to pheromones and pollen diet are discussed.     

Spatial foraging patterns and colony energy status in the African honey bee,Apis mellifera scutellata

The relationship between changes in foraging patterns (inferred from waggle dance activity) and colony energy status (inferred from brood rearing activity, food storage, and colony weight) was examined for the African honey bee during a period of relative resource abundance and resource dearth. When resources were more abundant mean foraging distances (about 400 m) and foraging areas (4–5 km²) were small, and colonies recruited to 12–19 different sites per day. Colony foraging ranges and sites visited increased slightly during the dearth period, yet foraging continued to be concentrated within less than 10 km². The degree to which fluctuations in foraging patterns were correlated with colony energy status varied with the availability of floral resources. During periods of relative forage abundance, increases in foraging range and number of sites visited were significantly correlated with increases in brood rearing and colony weight. In contrast, colonies examined during periods of resource dearth exhibited no correlations between foraging areas, foraging distances, and fluctuations in brood rearing, food storage, or colony weight. Thus, during dearth periods colonies may not be able to coordinate foraging patterns with changes in colony energy status.     

Effect of triflumuron on brood development and colony survival of free-flying honeybee, Apis mellifera L.

Abstract:  The effect of the insect growth regulator (IGR) triflumuron (Alsystin^® 25 WP) on honeybee, Apis mellifera L. (Hym., Apidae), was studied in a semi-field test. Free-living colonies were fed one litre per hive of sucrose syrup containing 0, 0.025, 0.25 or 2.5 g of triflumuron. A significant reduction in flight activity was noted 6–10 weeks post-treatment at the two higher doses. These colonies reared less brood than before treatment. While the comb area occupied by uncapped brood was as high as [0.025 and 0.25 g active ingredient (a.i.)] or higher (2.5 g a.i.) than before treatment, there was a significant decline in capped brood at the two higher doses, indicating enhanced larval mortality. No capped brood was reared in the hive treated at the highest dose from 3–9 weeks post-treatment. Yet there was a significant accumulation of pollen and honey in the brood compartment at all doses. All colonies except the one treated at the highest dose survived the following winter. However, at 43 weeks post-treatment, hives treated at intermediate and low doses showed a significant increase in uncapped brood and a significant decrease in capped brood. This study revealed a strong residual toxicity of triflumuron to brood and substantiated its classification as hazardous to honeybee.     

Factors influencing seasonal absconding in colonies of the African honey bee,Apis mellifera scutellata

Summary This study investigated the effects of colony growth and development, food storage, foraging activity and weather on the migration behavior of African honey bees in the Okavango River Delta, Botswana. Four observation colonies were studied during the honey bee migration season (November–May), at which time the availability of blooming species was reduced. Two of the colonies (colonies 1 & 2) migrated during the study period, while the remaining two (colonies 3 & 4) did not. During the 4–6 weeks preceding the onset of migration preparations, colonies 1 & 2 exhibited increasing population sizes, high levels of brood production with low brood mortality, relatively large stores of food, and increasing mass. In contrast, the populations of colonies 3 & 4 did not increase, brood-rearing activity was erratic and lower, brood mortality was higher, food stores became depleted and colony mass declined. Both colonies 3 & 4 ceased rearing brood, and colony 3 died of starvation. Colony foraging activity was examined by monitoring waggle-dance activity 2–3 days each week. For 4–6 weeks before the onset of migration in colonies 1 & 2, daily foraging areas and mean daily foraging distances became increasingly large and variable. Colonies 3 & 4 exhibited foraging patterns similar to those observed for colonies 1 & 2 preceding migration. There was no clear association between 7 weather parameters examined and migration behavior. These data suggest that migration is influenced by an interaction of intra-colony demographics, food reserves and foraging patterns. Migration may be feasible only for those colonies that possess (1) a population of appropriate size and age structure to compensate for the natural attrition of older workers during the emigration process, and (2) sufficient food reserves for long-distance travel and the establishment of a new nest. Changing foraging patterns may reflect a deteriorating foraging environment, which may trigger the onset of migration preparations, provided that colony demographics and food reserves are conducive. Colonies that show decreased brood production, higher brood mortality and reduced food stores may be incapable of migrating, even when experiencing deteriorating foraging conditions. Rather, such colonies may have a greater chance of survival if they attempt to persist in a given area.     

不同水平亮氨酸对繁殖期意大利蜜蜂蜂群群势及工蜂发育的影响

【目的】评价日粮中不同水平亮氨酸对繁殖期意大利蜜蜂Apis mellifera ligustica蜂群群势及工蜂发育的影响。【方法】选取重庆荣昌本地繁殖期意大利蜜蜂21群,随机分为7组,分别饲喂添加0,15.30,17.50,26.25,35.00,43.75和52.5 g/kg亮氨酸的试验日粮,每12 d测定各组蜂群群势、封盖子量、蜂群取食量和营造王台情况,24 d后测定蜂群采集行为、工蜂初生重、工蜂虫体蛋白质含量及工蜂寿命。【结果】当亮氨酸添加水平为43.75和52.50 g/kg时能够显著提高繁殖期意大利蜜蜂的蜂群群势、封盖子量、蜂群取食量及采集行为(P0.05)。与空白对照组相比,基础日粮组及各亮氨酸添加组的新出房蜂和6日龄幼虫体蛋白质含量较高(P0.05);各亮氨酸添加组的工蜂初生重显著高于空白组(P0.05);不同亮氨酸添加水平对意大利蜜蜂工蜂寿命影响较小。此外,亮氨酸添加水平26.25,35.00和43.75 g/kg能够在饲喂0-24 d时促进蜂群营造自然王台,刺激蜂群分蜂。【结论】配方日粮中43.75和52.5 g/kg的亮氨酸能够显著促进繁殖期意大利蜜蜂蜂群发展,其中43.75 g/kg的亮氨酸饲喂量还能刺激蜂群营造自然王台,激发蜂群分蜂。     

Methods for Comparing Nutrients in Beebread Made by Africanized and European Honey Bees and the Effects on Hemolymph Protein Titers

Honey bees obtain nutrients from pollen they collect and store in the hive as beebread. We developed methods to control the pollen source that bees collect and convert to beebread by placing colonies in a specially constructed enclosed flight area. Methods were developed to analyze the protein and amino acid composition of the pollen and beebread. We also describe how consumption of the beebread was measured and methods used to determine adult worker bee hemolymph protein titers after feeding on beebread for 4, 7 and 11 days after emergence. Methods were applied to determine if genotype affects the conversion of pollen to beebread and the rate that bees consume and acquire protein from it. Two subspecies (European and Africanized honey bees; EHB and AHB respectively) were provided with the same pollen source. Based on the developed methods, beebread made by both subspecies had lower protein concentrations and pH values than the pollen. In general, amino acid concentrations in beebread made by either EHB or AHB were similar and occurred at higher levels in beebread than in pollen. Both AHB and EHB consumed significantly more of the beebread made by AHB than by EHB. Though EHB and AHB consumed similar amounts of each type of beebread, hemolymph protein concentrations in AHB were higher than in EHB. Differences in protein acquisition between AHB and EHB might reflect environmental adaptations related to the geographic region where each subspecies evolved. These differences could contribute to the successful establishment of AHB populations in the New World because of the effects on brood rearing and colony growth.     

Survival of honeybees in cold climates: the critical timing of colony growth and reproduction

Abstract. 1. The adaptive significance of the timing of growth and reproduction by honeybee, Apis mellifera L., colonies in cold climates was studied by describing the seasonal patterns of food storage, brood rearing, and swarming, and then observing the consequences of experimentally perturbing the seasonal cycles of brood rearing and swarming.
2. Colonies consume large amounts of food over winter (20+ kg of honey), but have only a brief period (about 14 weeks) for food collection each year.
3. The honeybee's striking habits of starting brood rearing in midwinter and swarming in late spring evidently help colonies achieve maximum use of the short summer season. Colonies whose onset of-brood rearing was experimentally postponed until early spring showed greatly retarded colony growth and swarming. Other experiments demonstrated that late swarms starve more often during winter than do early swarms.
4. We conclude that the timings of colony growth and reproduction are essential elements in the honeybee's suite of adaptations for winter survival.     

大蜂螨对一些气味物质的趋性

狄斯瓦螨Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman是意大利蜜蜂Apis mellifera Spinola的主要外寄生螨。雌成螨在幼虫巢房封盖前不久侵入幼虫巢房,并开始繁殖为害。从雌成螨在一个很短的时间内进入蜜蜂幼虫巢房,以及雄蜂幼虫巢房蜂螨的寄生率明显高于工蜂幼虫巢房的现象,表明蜜蜂幼虫体表一些信息素(semiochemicals)可能起着重要的引诱作用。作者对与大蜂螨相关的19种气味物质进行筛选,并对封盖前工蜂幼虫和雄蜂幼虫表皮挥发物进行气谱及气-质联谱测定。结果表明:雄蜂6龄幼虫对大蜂螨的引诱作用显著高于丁香水等10种气味物质。工蜂和雄蜂末龄幼虫体表挥发物的共有组份是9-二十三烯(C23H46),但它在雄蜂幼虫中所占的比例要明显高于工蜂幼虫。工蜂幼虫的特有主要组分是十八烷(C18H38)和9-甲基十九烷(C19H40);而雄蜂幼虫的特有主要组分是二十五烷(C25H52)和二十三烷(C23H48)。     

Hemolymph proteome changes during worker brood development match the biological divergences between western honey bees (Apis mellifera) and eastern honey bees (Apis cerana)

Background

Hemolymph plays key roles in honey bee molecule transport, immune defense, and in monitoring the physiological condition. There is a lack of knowledge regarding how the proteome achieves these biological missions for both the western and eastern honey bees (Apis mellifera and Apis cerana). A time-resolved proteome was compared using two-dimensional electrophoresis-based proteomics to reveal the mechanistic differences by analysis of hemolymph proteome changes between the worker bees of two bee species during the larval to pupal stages.

Results

The brood body weight of Apis mellifera was significantly heavier than that of Apis cerana at each developmental stage. Significantly, different protein expression patterns and metabolic pathways were observed in 74 proteins (166 spots) that were differentially abundant between the two bee species. The function of hemolymph in energy storage, odor communication, and antioxidation is of equal importance for the western and eastern bees, indicated by the enhanced expression of different protein species. However, stronger expression of protein folding, cytoskeletal and developmental proteins, and more highly activated energy producing pathways in western bees suggests that the different bee species have developed unique strategies to match their specific physiology using hemolymph to deliver nutrients and in immune defense.

Conclusions

Our disparate findings constitute a proof-of-concept of molecular details that the ecologically shaped different physiological conditions of different bee species match with the hemolymph proteome during the brood stage. This also provides a starting point for future research on the specific hemolymph proteins or pathways related to the differential phenotypes or physiology.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-563) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Genome-wide characterization of long intergenic non-coding RNAs (lincRNAs) provides new insight into viral diseases in honey bees Apis cerana and Apis mellifera

Background

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of RNAs that do not encode proteins. Recently, lncRNAs have gained special attention for their roles in various biological process and diseases.

Results

In an attempt to identify long intergenic non-coding RNAs (lincRNAs) and their possible involvement in honey bee development and diseases, we analyzed RNA-seq datasets generated from Asian honey bee (Apis cerana) and western honey bee (Apis mellifera). We identified 2470 lincRNAs with an average length of 1011 bp from A. cerana and 1514 lincRNAs with an average length of 790 bp in A. mellifera. Comparative analysis revealed that 5 % of the total lincRNAs derived from both species are unique in each species. Our comparative digital gene expression analysis revealed a high degree of tissue-specific expression among the seven major tissues of honey bee, different from mRNA expression patterns. A total of 863 (57 %) and 464 (18 %) lincRNAs showed tissue-dependent expression in A. mellifera and A. cerana, respectively, most preferentially in ovary and fat body tissues. Importantly, we identified 11 lincRNAs that are specifically regulated upon viral infection in honey bees, and 10 of them appear to play roles during infection with various viruses.

Conclusions

This study provides the first comprehensive set of lincRNAs for honey bees and opens the door to discover lincRNAs associated with biological and hormone signaling pathways as well as various diseases of honey bee.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1868-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Drone and Worker Brood Microclimates Are Regulated Differentially in Honey Bees,Apis mellifera

Background

Honey bee (Apis mellifera) drones and workers show differences in morphology, physiology, and behavior. Because the functions of drones are more related to colony reproduction, and those of workers relate to both survival and reproduction, we hypothesize that the microclimate for worker brood is more precisely regulated than that of drone brood.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We assessed temperature and relative humidity (RH) inside honey bee colonies for both drone and worker brood throughout the three-stage development period, using digital HOBO^® Data Loggers. The major findings of this study are that 1) both drone and worker castes show the highest temperature for eggs, followed by larvae and then pupae; 2) temperature in drones are maintained at higher precision (smaller variance) in drone eggs and larvae, but at a lower precision in pupae than the corresponding stages of workers; 3) RH regulation showed higher variance in drone than workers across all brood stages; and 4) RH regulation seems largely due to regulation by workers, as the contribution from empty honey combs are much smaller compared to that from adult workers.

Conclusions/Significance

We conclude that honey bee colonies maintain both temperature and humidity actively; that the microclimate for sealed drone brood is less precisely regulated than worker brood; and that combs with honey contribute very little to the increase of RH in honey bee colonies. These findings increase our understanding of microclimate regulation in honey bees and may have implications for beekeeping practices.     

Seasonal patterns of foraging activity in colonies of the African honey bee,Apis mellifera scutellata,in Africa

Summary Seasonal foraging patterns were investigated using six observation colonies maintained in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Pollen collection, flight from the hive, and recruitment for pollen and nectar sources occurred throughout the 11 months of the study. However, the distribution of foraging activity throughout the day changed seasonally. Colonies emphasized recruitment for pollen sites throughout most of the year. Brood production occurred in all months except May, and there was a significant, positive correlation between the proportion of recruitment activity devoted to pollen sources and the amount of brood comb in the colonies. The seasonal foraging patterns ofscutellata in the Okavango were similar to those of Africanized honey bees in the neotropics. The extended foraging season and emphasis on pollen collection may be associated with the high swarming rates and migrational movements of tropical honey bees.     

意大利蜜蜂工蜂卵巢发育的研究

蜜蜂Apis mellifera L.蜂群中的工蜂卵巢发育和工蜂产卵现象受多种因素控制,了解其影响因素对养蜂生产具有重要意义。本研究将意大利蜜蜂蜂群设置为囚王群(tg1)、无王有子群(tg2)、无王无子群(tg3)以及正常有王蜂群(CK)4个试验组,通过对工蜂卵巢管的显微观察,确定不同处理组工蜂在不同时间段内卵巢的发育情况。结果表明:随着时间的延长,与CK处理组相比,tg3处理组中的工蜂卵巢发育水平最高,tg2次之,tg1最低;在31d时,4个处理组两两之间差异均达到显著水平(P<0.05)。tg1、tg2和tg3处理组中工蜂产卵前期时间分别为35、22和17d,而CK蜂群在试验期内未出现工蜂产卵现象;tg2和tg3处理组的工蜂产卵的封盖前期时间分别为8和6d,而tg1和CK组在试验期内未出现子房封盖现象。蜂群失王时间过长会刺激工蜂卵巢发育,并导致其产卵;蜂群的短期失王和蜂王老化也会刺激工蜂卵巢发育,但是刺激程度较低;蜂群中的蜂子能抑制工蜂卵巢管的发育,因此在蜂群短时间失王时可以适当地补充子脾延缓工蜂卵巢发育。     

Influence of pollen diet in spring on development of honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) colonies

The effects of changes in spring pollen diet on the development of honey bee, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), colonies were examined in a 3-yr study (2002-2004). Pollen-supplemented and pollen-limited conditions were created in colonies every spring, and brood rearing and honey yields were subsequently monitored throughout the summer. In all 3 yr, colonies that were supplemented with pollen or a pollen substitute in the spring started rearing brood earlier than colonies in other treatment groups and produced the most workers by late April or early May. In 2002, these initial differences were reflected by a two-fold increase in annual honey yields by September for colonies that were pollen-supplemented during the spring compared with pollen-limited colonies. In 2003 and 2004, differences between treatment groups in the cumulative number of workers produced by colonies disappeared by midsummer, and all colonies had similar annual honey yields (exception: in one year, productivity was low for colonies supplemented with pollen before wintering). Discrepancies between years coincided with differences in spring weather conditions. Colonies supplemented with pollen or a substitute during the spring performed similarly in all respects. These results indicate that an investment in supplementing the pollen diet of colonies would be returned for situations in which large spring populations are important, but long-term improvement in honey yields may only result when spring foraging is severely reduced by inclement weather. Beekeepers should weigh this information against the nutritional deficiencies that are frequently generated in colonies by the stresses of commercial management.