Fruiting phenology of animal-dispersed plants in response to winter migration of frugivores in a warm temperate forest on Yakushima Island, Japan

The fruiting phenology of animal-dispersed plants was observed in a warm temperate, evergreen forest on Yakushima Island. The number of ripe fruits was counted for 22 trees, four lianas and one parasitic epiphyte species with sapfruit. These fruits were consumed by birds and Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui). Birds with small gapes (e.g. Japanese white-eye [Zosterops japonica]) consumed only small fruit less than 6 mm in diameter, while birds with large gapes (e.g. red-capped green pigeon [Sphenurus formosae]) and Japanese macaques consumed a wide range of fruits from 4 to 16 mm in diameter. The larger animals did not ignore the smaller fruits. Brown-eared bulbul (Hypsipetes amaurotis) and Japanese white-eye were the main consumers of sapfruit in terms of frequency in winter. Some of the observed consumers were year-round residents, but most of the consumers migrated to Yakushima Island from the main islands of Japan to overwinter (from November to March), and their abundance in winter was four times as high as during the rest of the year (from May to October). In 23 of the 27 plant species investigated, sapfruit production coincided with their immigration season, whereas tree species bear capsules and nuts during autumn from September to November. We suggest that sapfruit species set their ripe period to the season when frugivorous birds are most abundant.     

History and Present Scope of Field Studies on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Macaca fuscata yakui</Emphasis> at Yakushima Island,Japan

Field studies on Japanese macaques on Yakushima Island started in the mid-1970s, >25 yr after the emergence of Japanese primatology, in response to criticism of methods using provisioning and the desire to find the socioecological factors influencing the social life of macaques in natural habitats. We habituated macaques without provisioning mainly in the coastal warm-temperate forest and found that they lived in small troops with a high socionomic sex ratio. Observations of several troop fissions and troop takeovers by nontroop males suggest that Yakushima macaques have a different social organization from that of Japanese macaques in other habitats. For example, youngest ascendancy as the dominance relationhip among sisters, which usually occurs in provisioned troops, was absent in Yakushima macaques. We compared their ecological and social features with those of Japanese macaques at Kinkazan (cool-temperate forests) and found that abundance of high-quality foods may cause stronger intra- and intertroop competition at Yakushima. Female Yakushima macaques may more positively solicit nontroop males to associate with them during the mating season. Such a tendency may promote frequent male movement between troops and frequent troop fissions. Though ecological factors form social features of Japanese macaques, some features such as male association and movements between troops are not accounted for via socioecology. Recent field studies have focused on macaques living at higher altitudes in Yakushima and on individual survival strategies by taking diverse viewpoints and using new technologies. DNA analysis of fecal samples shows low genetic diversity and suggests the macaques’ recent expansion from lowland to highland forests in Yakushima. The population censuses conducted annually indicate that the higher-altitude macaques have a larger home range but a similar group size versus their counterparts at low elevations. The unsolved issues in socioecology will pose a challenge to the younger generation of primatologists. Conservation of macaques and their habitat is one of our major activities at Yakushima. The level of protection has gradually increased in the National Park at Yakushima and, via our various conservation efforts, its most important area was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1993. However, large-scale logging in the 1960s and 1970s caused the loss of macaque habitats and led to increased crop damage by them in the 1980s. We have proposed effective methods to protect cultivated fields from macaques as well as several plans for sustainable use of forests, such as ecotourism and a fieldwork course for university students. Local residents and researchers have created several nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to promote conservation and nature study at Yakushima. The role of local NGOs is particularly important to mitigate conflicts between people and wildlife. Though hundreds of macaques are still captured as pests annually in Yakushima, we continue the conservation measures and spread awareness of conservation in cooperation with the local NGOs.     

Altitudinal and seasonal variations in the diet of Japanese macaques in Yakushima

Altitudinal and seasonal variations in the diet of Japanese macaques in Yakushima, southwestern Japan, were studied for 2 years by means of fecal analysis. The altitudinal range of fecal samples collected was 30 m to 1,203 m above sea level, and it was divided into three zones: low-zone forest (0–399 m), middle-zone forest (400–799 m), and high-zone forest (800 m–1,230 m). There was a considerable altitudinal and seasonal variation in the macaques' diet. Seed/fruit and animal matter were eaten more in the lower zones, whereas more fiber and fungi were consumed in the higher zones. In all of the zones, they ate seed/fruits the most in autumn (September–November) and the least in spring (March–April). They ate fibrous food the most in spring and the least in autumn. Macaques relied on seed/fruits heavily in the lower zone for a longer period than in the higher zones. Macaques in the high-zone forest ate almost no seed/fruit foods from March to May. Altitudinal variations in availability of seed/fruit foods seem to have influenced the altitudinal variations in diet. Total basal area of seed/fruit-food trees, species richness of seed/fruit-foods, main seed/fruit-food types available, and annual fleshy-fruit production all decreased with increasing altitude. Both interannual variation and annual cyclicity of diet were found in all zones. Electronic Publication     

Foraging strategies of yakushima macaques(Macaca fuscata yakui)

I investigated the activity budget and diet of Yakushima macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui,)in warm temperate broad- leaved forest of Yakushima, Japan. Both time spent feeding and time spent moving varied considerably between half- months. However, total time spent in active behaviors— feeding time plus moving time— was stable. The composition of the diet also showed considerable variation between half- months. The macaques fed mainly on fruits, seeds,mature leaves, fallen seeds, flowers, and young leaves, each of which accounted for more than 30% of feeding time in at least 1 half- month. They also ate insects and fungi, but each of them comprised ≤ 25 and ≤ 8% of feeding time in any half- month, respectively. Time spent feeding on mature leaves, young leaves, flowers, or fallen seeds is positively correlated with total time feeding and is negatively correlated with time moving. In contrast, time feeding on fruits, seeds, insects or fungi is negatively correlated with time feeding and is positively correlated with time moving. Foraging on foods that have a low energy content, a high density, and a relatively even distribution— mature leaves— or that need much manipulation to be processed— flowers and fallen seeds— increased feeding time, while foraging on foods for which monkeys must search intensively in the forest— fruits, seeds, insects, and fungi— led to increased moving time. I examined foraging strategies of Yakushima macaques in terms of moving costs and the quality of food items. Regarding time feeding on fruits, which have more energy and may need less manipulation than other foods, as a benefit, and moving time as a cost, they seemed to employ a strategy that balanced the costs and benefits of foraging.     

The role of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) as endozoochorous seed dispersers on Kinkazan Island, northern Japan

We studied the characteristics of seeds within faeces, an important aspect of endozoochorous seed dispersal, in Japanese macaques Macaca fuscata inhabiting Kinkazan Island, northern Japan. We intermittently collected faecal samples from 1999 to 2009 (N = 1294) and examined the rate of seed occurrence, species/life-form composition, number of seeds, and their intact rate. Seeds were found within faecal samples during every month, but their characteristics changed monthly: the rate of seed occurrence and the number of plant species within faecal samples were greater in summer and fall, and the intact rate and number of intact seeds observed within single faecal samples were also higher during these seasons than spring and winter. These results suggest that Japanese macaques on Kinkazan act as seed dispersers in summer and fall and that they disperse intact seeds into wider areas within the forest through defecation. During the study period, we observed seeds from a total of 35 plant species from 22 families in our samples. In addition to those of woody plants, we also observed seeds from as many as 12 herbaceous plants, for which sympatric sika deer (Cervus nippon) have historically been considered the sole seed dispersal agents. The intact rate of seeds was significantly negatively correlated with the seeds’ mean cubic diameter, and this relationship was strengthened for non-fleshy fruits. We also conducted regional comparisons of the characteristics of defecated seeds in order to address whether regional variations in the diet of the macaques affect their efficacy as seed dispersers, both in terms of quantity and quality. Macaques living in the natural habitats of Kinkazan and Yakushima dispersed more seeds of tall tree species than do macaques inhabiting the human-altered areas of in Shimokita and Kashima. The number of plant species represented within single faecal samples also varied geographically, being greater in Yakushima. This pattern likely resulted from Yakushima's warm temperate climate, as the other three study sites occur in the cool temperate region. Our results suggest that the composition of seeds dispersed by Japanese macaques is not rigid, but is determined instead by the vegetation found in a given habitat.     

Rapid shifting of foraging pattern by Yakushima macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui) in response to heavy fruiting ofMyrica rubra

We describe short-term changes in foraging behavior by wild Yakushima macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui),which inhabit a warm-temperate broad—leaved forest on Yakushima Island (30°N, 131°E), Japan. Rapid changes of dietary composition, activity budget, and range use by the monkeys occurred from May to June, apparently associated with changes in the availability of the fruit of Myrica rubraBefore the fruit ripened, monkeys spent less time moving and more time feeding on many species of leaves, which accounted for 40% of feeding time. However, when M. rubrabegan to ripen, they fed intensively on the fruit, which accounted for three-fourths of feeding time,though the activity budget remained unaffected As fiuit of M. rubradecreased,the monkeys fed more on the fruit of other species and on insects, and spent more time moving at higher speeds. There marked shifts in foraging pattern occurred within only two months. In terms of moving cost and dietary quality,Yakushima macaques shifted their foraging pattern according to the availability of M. rubrafrom a “low-cost, low-yield” strategy to a “low-cost, high-yield” strategy, and then to a more costly strategy. The ability to make such rapid shifts in foraging pattern may allow the macaques to effectively use the highly variable food supply within their small range.     

Specificity of assemblage,not fungal partner species,explains mycorrhizal partnerships of mycoheterotrophic Burmannia plants

Mycoheterotrophic plants (MHPs) growing on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) usually maintain specialized mycorrhizal associations. The level of specificity varies between MHPs, although it remains largely unknown whether interactions with mycorrhizal fungi differ by plant lineage, species, and/or by population. Here, we investigate the mycorrhizal interactions among Burmannia species (Burmanniaceae) with different trophic modes using high-throughput DNA sequencing. We characterized the inter- and intraspecific dynamics of the fungal communities by assessing the composition and diversity of fungi among sites. We found that fully mycoheterotrophic species are more specialized in their fungal associations than chlorophyllous species, and that this specialization possibly results from the gradual loss of some fungal groups. In particular, although many fungal species were shared by different Burmannia species, fully MHP species typically host species-specific fungal assemblages, suggesting that they have a preference for the selected fungi. Although no apparent cophylogenetic relationship was detected between fungi and plants, we observe that evolutionarily closely related plants tend to have a greater proportion of shared or closely related fungal partners. Our findings suggest a host preference and specialization toward fungal assemblages in Burmannia, improving understanding of interactions between MHPs and fungi.Subject terms: Fungi, Plant sciences, Evolution     

Diet of a Japanese Macaque Troop in the Coniferous Forest of Yakushima

I studied the diet of a troop of Japanese macaques in the coniferous forest of Yakushima over one year via focal animal sampling. Fiber-rich foods constituted 45% of annual feeding time, and mature leaves constituted 38% of total feeding time. Feeding time on fruits and seeds was only 13% and 4%, respectively. Flowers and fungi contributed a considerable amount of annual feeding time: 15% and 14%, respectively. Their diet changed seasonally. They fed on more fruits and seeds in response to increased availability, and when these foods were not available, they ate mature leaves. When the temperature was low, they ate more herbs, possibly to save energy by not climbing trees and staying in sunny places. The results imply two dietary characteristics of the species that might relate to adaptations in temperate regions, where fruit is available during a limited season and fiber-rich foods are the only candidate of fallback food. They are capable of digesting a large amount of fiber-rich food, but at the same time they preferentially select high-quality fruits or seeds when they are available.     

Aggressive intergroup encounters in two populations of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

It is predicted that variation in intergroup relationships in group living primates reflects the cost and benefit of resource defense. We tested the applicability of the model by examining population difference, group difference, and seasonal difference in behaviors during intergroup encounters in two populations of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata), one of six groups from Yakushima Island, and the other of three groups from Kinkazan Island. We found that the nature of intergroup encounter varied with group identity, reproductive seasonality, and population. Yakushima groups showed aggressive behaviors more frequently than did Kinkazan groups and the difference was consistent with the food competition model, both because of the involvement of females, and because home ranges were smaller on Yakushima than on Kinkazan, and thus more defensive. Both sexes of animals participated in aggressive interactions, but males were more aggressive than females. Furthermore, Yakushima population showed more agonistic intergroup behaviors during the mating season than the non-mating season. Also during the encounters, intergroup mating was observed, but only in Yakushima. It is concluded that intergroup relationships reflect the mate guarding behavior by group males. However, the agonistic relationship during non-mating season, especially that of among females, is also consistent with the food competition model. It is also noted that males' behavior toward other groups can also be interpreted as a form of investigative behavior before possible transfer into a new group.     

Radiation and phylogeography in the Japanese macaque, Macaca fuscata

The Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) presumably differentiated from eastern rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) populations during the Pleistocene and the two species are closely related. In order to analyse speciation and subspeciation events in the Japanese macaque and to describe historical and current relationships among their populations, we sequenced and analysed a fragment of 392bp of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region in 50 individuals belonging to six populations of Japanese macaque and compared these sequences with 89 eastern rhesus macaque control region sequences from GenBank/EMBL database. There were high genetic similarities between both species and only two positions were fixed within each species, which supports the inclusion of the Japanese macaque in a single species with eastern populations of rhesus macaques. Japanese macaque ancestors colonised Japan after the separation of the two species, estimated at between 0.31 and 0.88 million years ago (Mya). The star-like phylogeny, multimodal mismatch distribution, and lack of correlation between geographic and genetic distances are in accordance with a rapid dispersion of macaques throughout the archipelago after the arrival into Japan. The species shows low genetic variation within populations and high levels of genetic differentiation among populations with no mtDNA haplotype shared across populations. Genetic distances between Yakushima macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui) and any other population of Macaca fuscata fuscata subspecies are comparable to the distances between populations of Honshu, Awajishima, and Kyushu, not supporting the classification of Yakushima macaques as a different subspecies.     

Variation in Intergroup Encounters in Two Populations of Japanese Macaques

The nature of intergroup encounters differed between two populations of wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata): the Yakushima and Kinkazan populations. In the Yakushima population, intergroup encounters were more likely to result in the displacement of one group, intergroup agonistic interaction was common, and intergroup dominance was usually distinct. When displacement occurred at Yakushima, larger groups tended to dominate smaller ones. Conversely, in the Kinkazan population, intergroup encounters rarely resulted in displacement, intergroup agonistic interaction was rare, and intergroup dominance was usually unclear. Thus, monkeys in Yakushima appear to defend resources actively during encounters, while those in Kinkazan usually did not defend resources. The frequency of encounters was significantly higher in Yakushima than in Kinkazan. The two populations had very different group densities and traveling speeds, both of which directly influence the chance of encounters. Taking these differences into account, we compared the observed frequency with those predicted by the ideal gas model. The observed frequencies in both populations were about one-third of the number expected with the model, which suggests that the differences in encounter frequency were caused by differences in group density and traveling speed. We discuss this intraspecific variation in light of economic defendability in connection to habitat differences and the evolutionary significance of resource defense behavior.     

Frog- and lizard-eating behaviour of wild Japanese macaques in Yakushima,Japan

Frog- and lizard-eating and related behaviours were observed on eight occasions in two troops of wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui) in Yakushima, between March 1984 and April 1989. In each case, the first animal seen handling the prey was an adult. Juveniles showed interest in the prey, sniffed or mouthed it in three cases, and ate discarded parts of it in another. In the three cases where capture was observed, detection of the prey appeared to be fortuitous. Four monkeys ate leaves after eating meat. Those leaves identified were of species not commonly eaten. Though invertebrate-eating is common and widespread among Japanese macaques, the consumption of vertebrates is rare. The possibility that these behaviours represent a local tradition among the Yakushima macaques is discussed.     

Seasonal Effects on Reconciliation in Macaca fuscata yakui

Dietary composition may have profound effects on the activity budgets, level of food competition, and social behavior of a species. Similarly, in seasonally breeding species, the mating season is a period in which competition for mating partners increases, affecting amicable social interactions among group members. We analyzed the importance of the mating season and of seasonal variations in dietary composition and food competition on reconciliation in wild female Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui) on Yakushima Island, Japan. Yakushima macaques are appropriate subjects because they are seasonal breeders and their dietary composition significantly changes among the seasons. Though large differences occurred between the summer months and the winter and early spring months in activity budgets and the consumption of the main food sources, i.e., fruits, seeds, and leaves, the level of food competition and conciliatory tendency remained unaffected. Conversely, conciliatory tendency is significantly lower during the mating season than in the nonmating season. Moreover, conciliatory tendency is lower when 1 or both female opponents is in estrous than when they are not. Thus the mating season has profound effects on reconciliation, whereas seasonal changes in activity budgets and dietary composition do not. The detrimental effects of the mating season on female social relationships and reconciliation may be due to the importance of female competition for access to male partners in multimale, multifemale societies.     

Home range structure and inter-group competition for land of Japanese macaques in evergreen and deciduous forests

The per capita home range area of Japanese macaques,Macaca fuscata, is significantly smaller in evergreen forest than in deciduous forest, though a corresponding difference in food resource utilization patterns has never been described. The present study compared the home range utilization pattern of Japanese macaques living in two habitats: the Yakushima population inhabits an evergreen forest, while the Kinkazan population inhabits a deciduous forest. We found that in the Yakushima population, (1) food density was higher; (2) inter-feeding bout sites distance was shorter; (3) daily travel distance was shorter; (4) home range size was smaller; and (5) the unit value of the main home range was higher, than in the Kinkazan population. Yakushima groups utilized a small home range area intensively, compared to Kinkazan groups. We also found that a Yakushima group shared 24% of its main home range with neighboring groups, though a Kinkazan group shared only 10% with other groups. It is supposed that food distribution affects daily ranging pattern, and ultimately the social relationships between groups in Japanese macaques.     

What determines species composition and diversity of hypogeous fungi in the diet of small mammals? A comparison across mammal species,habitat types and seasons in Central European mountains

Interactions between diverse groups of organisms influence the functioning and diversity of ecosystems. Salient examples of such relationships are those among hypogeous fungi, trees and mycophagous mammals. To investigate the role of small mammals in transporting fungal spores within and outside forests as well as the influence of seasons, habitats and species on small mammal mycophagy, we set up a study in the Pieniny Mts, Western Carpathians (Southern Poland). The droppings of small mammals were collected during live trapping in July and September 2016 and 2017, to analyze richness, composition and frequency of fungal spores present in faeces. The yellow-necked mouse Apodemus flavicollis, the bank vole Myodes glareolus and the common vole Microtus arvalis were the most frequently trapped. Spores of 27 fungal taxa from 16 genera were retrieved from nearly 70% of faecal samples of rodents and shrews, with up to 9 spore taxa recorded per sample. Spore diversity in samples was higher in September than in July, although seasonal variation was year and animal dependent. The highest mean number of fungal taxa per sample was recorded for the bank vole and the yellow-necked mouse, with the former species showing a higher degree of mycophagy. The two rodents differed in the average frequencies of consumed fungi in samples, which could result from some degree of specialization in the choice of particular fungal species, as shown by the laboratory-based experiment. Within particular animal species, differences in the fungal diet were found between seasons. The spores of hypogeous fungi were transported from forests to meadows mostly by the yellow-necked mouse and, to a lesser extent, by the common vole. However, both, the diversity and the number of transported spores diminished with distance from the forest edge.     

Mycophagy in small mammals: A comparison of the occurrence and diversity of hypogeal fungi in the diet of the long-nosed potoroo Potorous tridactylus and the bush rat Rattus fuscipes from southwestern Victoria,Australia

Abstract Three broad dietary categories—fungus, plant and arthropod—were identified from faecal samples of two species of small terrestrial mammal in forest vegetation in southwestern Victoria. Fungal material formed the major component of the diet of the long-nosed potoroo Potorous tridactylus throughout the year and of the bush rat Rattus fuscipes during autumn and winter. Fungal material was most abundant for both species during autumn and winter and significantly less common in spring and summer. These results confirm previous studies which found P. tridactylus to be highly mycophagous throughout the year and R. fuscipes to be strongly mycophagous seasonally. Particular consideration was given to the composition of fungi in the diet. Fungal spores in faecal material were assigned to spore classes, which represent one or more fungal species that have similar spore morphology. Twenty-four fungal spore classes were recorded, but for both animal species most of the fungi consumed were from seven major spore classes. The proportions of major spore classes in the diet of both animals were generally similar, even though the composition of spore classes differed markedly across seasons. Minor differences between species in the fungi consumed may be related to differences in selectivity, foraging, or microhabitat use. If fungal resources are limiting, competition for such resources may be important in this and other small mammal communities. The amount and diversity of hypogeal fungi consumed by the two animal species makes them both important spore dispersal agents in forest ecosystems. The capacity of R. fuscipes and other seasonally mycophagous mammals in this role may be more important than previously recognized, especially in habitats where species of the Potoroidae are absent.     

Toughness and fiber content of major leaf foods of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui) in Yakushima

During the spring, Japanese macaques in Yakushima feed predominantly on mature leaves of trees, vines, and ferns. They are selective in which parts of leaves they eat, and this study examines potential cues and consequences of typical patterns of selection. Toughness and fiber content (NDF) were assessed for 13 of the major leaf-food species from samples collected in the spring of 1994. The toughness of the petiole, the midrib, and two parts of the lamina were tested separately. Petioles were generally the toughest part of the leaf, followed by the midribs. For both midrib and lamina, there was a positive correlation between toughness and fiber content, but the toughness of midribs was at least three times that of laminae at similar fiber contents. A clear relationship was found between the toughness of plant parts and whether or not they were eaten: no plant parts with a toughness greater than 2,300 J m⁻² were consumed even at low fiber levels. Toughness therefore explained food selection patterns much better than did fiber content. Toughness is likely to be assessed at the front of the mouth or during mastication. However, the macaques rarely reject leaves after placing them in the mouth. We suggest, therefore, that toughness may be used to select between feeding sites, rather than between individual leaves. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Potential for Nematode Control by Mycofloras Endemic in the Tropics

Results of mycological surveys of root-knot and cyst nematodes from tropical regions indicate that most fungal species associated with females or cysts of species of Globodera, Heterodera, and Meloidogyne are those found with nematodes from temperate areas. Some fungal species, however, were found in higher frequency in tropical regions than in temperate countries; e.g., Cylindrocarpon destructans and Ulocladium atrum were the most common species associated with G. pallida and G. rostochiensis cysts in Peru. These fungi are not so frequent in nematodes from temperate areas. Fungi associated with diseased nematodes in the tropics vary greatly in nutritional requirements and include thermophilic species as well as cold-tolerant fungi. Multi-cropping systems possible in most tropical regions may be designed to increase the frequency of occurrence of microbial species antagonistic to phytonematodes.     

Removal of anaerobic fungi from the rumen of sheep by chemical treatment and the effect on feed consumption and in vivo fibre digestion

The population of anaerobic fungi in the rumen of sheep was reduced by the addition of tetronasin (an ionophore antibiotic) to a herbage diet. Fungi were reduced to undetectable levels (< 1 fungal zoospore per ml rumen fluid) by the combined addition of tetronasin and cycloheximide (a protein synthesis inhibitor) and the absence of fungi was maintained with low levels of tetronasin. Sheep with fungi present in the rumen ate 40% more of a straw-based diet (with a fibre digestibility in vivo of 51%) than they ate when without fungi (47% fibre digestibility). Counts of total viable bacteria, cellulolytic bacteria and ciliate protozoa in the rumen were not significantly different when anaerobic fungi were either present or absent.     

Mammal mycophagy and fungal spore dispersal across a steep environmental gradient in eastern Australia

We examined changes in the types of fungi consumed by six species of small mammals across a habitat gradient in north‐eastern New South Wales that graded from swamp, to woodland, to open forest and then to rainforest. All mammals ate some fungus, but only bush rats (Rattus fuscipes) regularly did so, and their diet included most of the fungal taxa that we identified across all mammals in the study. The composition of bush rat diet changed significantly with each change in habitat from woodland, to forest, to rainforest. In particular, there was a significant difference in the diets of rats caught either side of the open forest‐rainforest ecotone, which marks the change in fungal community from one dominated by ectomycorrhizal fungi, to a community dominated by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Movement patterns of bush rats living around the open forest‐rainforest ecotone suggest that they transport fungal spores between these contrasting fungal communities. Therefore, bush rats have the potential, by way of spore dispersal, to influence the structure of vegetation communities.