Host specificity of the egg pupal parasitoid Fopius arisanus (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in La Reunion

Fopius arisanus is a polyphagous parasitoid of Tephritidae, which has been recently introduced to La Réunion Island as part of a classical biological control programme. We carried out laboratory experiments to assess the host specificity of this parasitoid, initially reared on Bactrocera zonata, and then offered for parasitization the eight local tephritid pest species. Naive or experienced parasitoid females were given tephritid eggs in no choice tests. Fopius arisanus females parasitize all fly species but parasitism varies with host species. No adult wasps emerge from Bactrocera cucurbitae and the survival of this species is only slightly affected by parasitism. Dissections show that the late instars of this fly may eliminate the parasitoid by encapsulation. When developing on Ceratitis capitata, Ceratitis rosa, Dacus ciliatus, Dacus demmerezi, and Neoceratitis cyanescens, parasitoid survival rate ranges from 10 to 25%. Bactrocera zonata and Ceratitis catoirii are the best hosts, yielding parasitoid survival rates of more than 70% with no premature mortality. The egg-larval mortality of C. capitata, C. rosa, D. ciliatus, and N. cyanescens, and the pupal mortality of D. demmerezi, are significantly increased by parasitism. The size of emerging adults is affected by host species and is correlated to pupal weight. Bactrocera zonata would be a favorable host to support routine colonization of F. arisanus for mass production of this parasitoid.     

A molecular phylogeny for the Tribe Dacini (Diptera: Tephritidae): systematic and biogeographic implications

With well over 700 species, the Tribe Dacini is one of the most species-rich clades within the dipteran family Tephritidae, the true fruit flies. Nearly all Dacini belong to one of two very large genera, Dacus Fabricius and Bactrocera Macquart. The distribution of the genera overlap in or around the Indian subcontinent, but the greatest diversity of Dacus is in Africa and the greatest diversity of Bactrocera is in south-east Asia and the Pacific. The monophyly of these two genera has not been rigorously established, with previous phylogenies only including a small number of species and always heavily biased to one genus over the other. Moreover, the subgeneric taxonomy within both genera is complex and the monophyly of many subgenera has not been explicitly tested. Previous hypotheses about the biogeography of the Dacini based on morphological reviews and current distributions of taxa have invoked an out-of-India hypothesis; however this has not been tested in a phylogenetic framework. We attempted to resolve these issues with a dated, molecular phylogeny of 125 Dacini species generated using 16S, COI, COII and white eye genes. The phylogeny shows that Bactrocera is not monophyletic, but rather consists of two major clades: Bactrocera s.s. and the 'Zeugodacus group of subgenera' (a recognised, but informal taxonomic grouping of 15 Bactrocera subgenera). This 'Zeugodacus' clade is the sister group to Dacus, not Bactrocera and, based on current distributions, split from Dacus before that genus moved into Africa. We recommend that taxonomic consideration be given to raising Zeugodacus to genus level. Supportive of predictions following from the out-of-India hypothesis, the first common ancestor of the Dacini arose in the mid-Cretaceous approximately 80mya. Major divergence events occurred during the Indian rafting period and diversification of Bactrocera apparently did not begin until after India docked with Eurasia (50-35mya). In contrast, diversification in Dacus, at approximately 65mya, apparently began much earlier than predicted by the out-of-India hypothesis, suggesting that, if the Dacini arose on the Indian plate, then ancestral Dacus may have left the plate in the mid to late Cretaceous via the well documented India-Madagascar-Africa migration route. We conclude that the phylogeny does not disprove the predictions of an out-of-India hypothesis for the Dacini, although modification of the original hypothesis is required.     

Impact of habitat modification on the distribution and abundance of fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Southeast Queensland

Loss of rainforest because of agricultural and urban development may impact the abundance and diversity of species that are rainforest natives. Tropical fruit flies are one group of such organisms indigenous to rainforests. In southeast Queensland, a region subject to rapid urbanization, we assessed the impact of habitat disturbance on the distribution and abundance of native fruit flies. Data on four species (Bactrocera tryoni, Bactrocera neohumeralis, Bactrocera chorista, and Dacus aequalis) were gathered and analyzed over 6 months in three habitat types: suburbia, open sclerophyll forest, and rainforest. We also analyzed the data at a combined "dacine fruit fly" level incorporating all fruit fly species trapped over the period of study (as might occur in a biodiversity assessment): these included the four species already named and Bactrocera melas, Bactrocera bryoniae, Bactrocera newmani, and Dacus absonifacies. Analysis at the species level showed that the polyphagous pest species responded differently to the monophagous species. Bactrocera tryoni, which has more exotic than native hosts, was positively affected by transformation of natural habitat into suburbia whereas B. neohumeralis, which has nearly identical numbers of native and exotic hosts, was found equally across habitat types. Bactrocera chorista and Dacus aequalis, each monophagous on a species-specific rainforest host plant, were most abundant in rainforest. The analysis based on the combined data suggests that replacing rainforest with suburbia has a neutral, or even positive, effect on the abundance of fruit flies as a whole. At the species level, however, it can be seen that this is an erroneous conclusion biased by the abundance of a single pest species. Our discussion raises the issue of analyses at supraspecific levels in biodiversity and impact assessment studies. Received: March 6, 2000 / Accepted: June 19, 2000     

Fruit fly liquid larval diet technology transfer and update

Since October 2006, the US Department of Agriculture–Agricultural Research Service (USDA–ARS) has been implementing a fruit fly liquid larval diet technology transfer, which has proceeded according to the following steps: (1) recruitment of interested groups through request; (2) establishment of the Material Transfer Agreement with agricultural research service; (3) fruit fly liquid larval diet starter kit sent to the requestor for preliminary evaluation; (4) problem‐solving through email or onsite demonstration; (5) assessment on feedback from the participants to decide whether to continue the project. Up to date, the project has involved 35 participants from 29 countries and 26 species of fruit flies. Fourteen participants have concluded their evaluation of the process, and 11 of these 14, have deemed it to be successful. One participant has decided to implement the project on a larger scale. The 14 participants were, Argentina (Ceratitis capitata and Anastrepha fraterculus), Bangladesh (Bactrocera cucurbitae, C. capitata, and Bactrocera dorsalis), China (Fujia province) (B. dorsalis), Italy (C. capitata), Fiji (Bactrocera passiflorae), Kenya (Bactrocera invadens, Ceratitis cosyra), Mauritius (Bactrocera zonata and B. cucurbitae), Mexico (Anastrepha species), Philippines (Bactrocera philippinese), Thailand (Bactrocera correcta), Austria (C. capitata, Vienna 8 and A. fraterculus), Israel (Dacus ciliatus and C. capitata), South Africa (C. capitata, Vienna 8) and Australia (C. capitata). The Stellenbosch medfly mass‐rearing facility in South Africa and the CDFA in Hawaii were two mass‐scale rearing facilities that allowed us to demonstrate onsite rearing in a larger scale. Demonstrations were performed in CDFA in 2007, and in Stellenbosch, South Africa in 2008; both were found to be successful. The Stellenbosch medfly mass‐rearing facility in South Africa decided to adopt the technology and is currently evaluating the quality control of the flies that were reared as larvae on a liquid diet.     

Australian Distribution of 17 Species of Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) Caught in Cue Lure Traps in February 1994

We report the first widespread survey of tephritid fruit flies attempted in a single time period. 1,471 cue lure traps caught 17 species, and extensions to previously recorded geographical ranges were detected for seven of them: Bactrocera tryoni, B. neohumeralis, B. frauenfeldi, B. aeroginosa, Dacus absonifascies, D. aequalis and D. newmani. the traps also unexpectedly caught several B. cacuminata and also both males and females of Dirioxa pornia and Ceratitis capitata. the geographical variation in the relative abundance of B. tryoni and B. neohumeralis in the region of their co-occurrence was in substantial agreement with earlier estimates. the regional variation in abundance of B. tryoni in the eastern states was in accordance with the predictions of a published bioclimatic model. Furthermore, the spread of this species (expected from the model) to several locations in the Northern Territory is recorded here for the first time.     

REDUCTION IN TRAP CAPTURES OF FEMALE FRUIT FLIES (DIPTERA: TEPHRITIDAE) WHEN SYNTHETIC MALE LURES ARE ADDED

Abstract
Captures of females of 4 species of fruit flies on or in both coloured sticky traps and protein baited traps were reduced by synthetic male attractants. Captures of female Dacus tryoni (Froggatt), Dacus neohumeralis Hardy and Dacus cacuminatus (Hering) were reduced by both cuelure and methyl eugenol, and female Ceratitis capitata (Weidemann) by Capilure®. These effects were sufficient to overcome the normally attractive stimuli of colour and odours associated with yeast.     

海南寡鬃实蝇亚科分类研究(双翅目: 实蝇科)

根据2000～2004年间海南省实蝇监测和野外调查的部分研究结果,确认海南寡鬃实蝇亚科Dacinae现知下列14种：桔小实蝇 Bactrocera (Bactrocera) dorsalis (Hendel), 辣椒果实蝇 B. (B.) latifrons (Hendel), 锈红果实蝇B. (B.) rubigina (Wang et Zhao), 五指山果实蝇 B. (B.) wuzhishana Lin et Yang, sp. nov., 何氏华实蝇B. (Sinodacus) hochii (Zia), 短条果实蝇 B. (Zeugodacus) abbreviata (Hardy), 普通果实蝇 B. (Z.) caudata (Fabricius), 两带果实蝇B. (Z.) cilifera (Hendel), 瓜实蝇 B. (Z.) cucurbitae (Coquillett), 黑颜果实蝇 B. (Z.) diaphora (Hendel), 宽带果实蝇 B. (Z.) scutellata (Hendel), 南亚果实蝇 B. (Z.) tau (Walker), 海口棍腹实蝇 Dacus (Callantra) haikouensis Wang et Chen, 海南寡鬃实蝇 Dacus (Dacus) hainanus Wang et Zhao。五指山果实蝇 B. (B.) wuzhishana Lin et Yang, sp. nov. 区别于果实蝇属内其他种的鉴别特征如下：1）颜具2个黑色大斑点;2）中胸盾片的缝后黄色侧条短而窄,后端约与缝后翅上鬃处于同一水平;3）翅前缘带较窄,末端稍加宽;4）足的股节除中股节基部的1/2和后股节基部的3/5呈黄色外,余全黑色;腹部完全黑色。除附新种特征图外,还提供海南寡鬃实蝇亚科的种类修订名录和分种检索表。     

A quantitative comparison of frugivorous tephritids (Diptera: Tephritidae) in tropical forests and rural areas of the Democratic Republic of Congo

Most of the current knowledge about African tephritids originates from studies performed in agricultural areas, while information about their distribution in pristine or moderately disturbed environments is extremely scarce. This study aims at (i) describing levels of spatial variability of frugivorous tephritids in tropical forests and small rural villages of the Congo River basin and (ii) verifying if human-mediated activities, such as small-scale agriculture and trade, can affect their distribution patterns. Four locations were sampled along a 250?km stretch of the Congo River. At each location, pristine and disturbed habitats (i.e. tropical forests and small rural villages, respectively) were sampled, with three replicate sites in each combination of habitat and location. Sampling with modified McPhail traps baited with four different attractants yielded 819 tephritid specimens of 29 species from seven genera (Bactrocera, Carpophthoromyia, Ceratitis, Dacus, Celidodacus, Perilampsis, Trirhithrum). The three most abundant species sampled (Dacus bivittatus, D. punctatifrons, Bactrocera invadens) showed significant variations in abundance across locations and sites and accounted for 98.29% of the overall dissimilarity between habitats. Assemblages differed among locations and sites while they showed significant differences between pristine and disturbed habitats in two out of the four locations. This study shows that frugivorous tephritids in central Congo have remarkably patchy distributions with differences among locations and sites representing the main source of variability. Our data show that, in rural villages of central Democratic Republic of Congo, human activities, such as small-scale agriculture and local commerce, are not always sufficient to promote differences between the tephritid assemblages of villages and those of the surrounding tropical forests.     

Molecular taxonomic identification of Dacus and Ceratitis species from Sub-Saharan Africa using mitochondrial haplotypes

Several different taxa within the genera Dacus and Ceratitis (Diptera: Tephritidae) are important agricultural pests in Sub-Saharan Africa. Although the status of many of these taxa as distinct species and their phylogenetic relationships is unclear, it is clear that these pests use a wide range of host plants and are highly invasive. The great potential for economic damage inflicted by these pests requires the ability to make accurate and reliable taxonomic identification of specimens. However, many limitations and uncertainties are encountered when these species are examined using traditional approaches based on morphological identification techniques. We describe here the amplification and analysis of DNA sequences from the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase II (COII)-tRNA(lys)-tRNA(ASP) genes from individuals of various Dacus and Ceratitis species and populations from Sub-Saharan Africa. The variation detected in the DNA sequences of these individuals is used both for clarification of their taxonomic status and the analysis of phylogenetic relationships of these taxa.     

Fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) diversity in cucurbit fields and surrounding forest areas of Himachal Pradesh,a north-western Himalayan state of India

During the course of studies, Bactrocera (Bactrocera) latifrons (Hendel), B. (B.) nigrofemoralis White and Tsuruta, Dacus (Callantra) longicornis Wiedemann, Dacus (Callantra) sphaeroidalis (Bezzi), Cyrtostola limbata (Hendel) and Pliomelaena udhampurensis Agarwal and Kapoor were recorded for the first time in Himachal Pradesh in a cucurbit ecosystem. Apart from these, other species viz. Bactrocera tau, Bactrocera cucurbitae, Bactrocera dorsalis, Bactrocera zonata, Bactrocera scutellaris, Bactrocera diversa and Dioxyna sororcula (Wiedemann) were also identified. Distribution records of B. (B.) dorsalis (Hendel), B. (B.) zonata (Saunders), Bactrocera (Hemigymnodacus) diversa (Coquillett), B. (Zeugodacus) cucurbitae (Coquillett), B. (Z.) scutellaris (Bezzi) and B. (Z.) tau (Walker) has been described.     

Acceptance and suitability of different host stages of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) and seven other tephritid fruit fly species to Tetrastichus giffardii Silvestri (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)

Tetrastichus giffardii Silvestri is a gregarious eulophid endoparasitoid of several tephritid fruit fly species. Host stage suitability was studied using nine age groups of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae), namely, eggs less than 24 h and between 24 and 48 h old, and 1- to 7-day-old larvae. Life table studies for T. giffardii using C. capitata as host were done at 26 ± 5 °C and 55–60% RH. Egg load in relation to age of the female parasitoid was also assessed as was the effect of host deprivation on adult longevity. Host acceptance and suitability were examined with respect to eight species of tephritids. Potential hosts so tested were five Ceratitis species, the Medfly, C. capitata, the mango fruit fly, Ceratitis cosyra (Walker), the Natal fruit fly, Ceratitis rosa Karsch, Ceratitis fasciventris (Bezzi), and Ceratitis anonae Graham; two Bactrocera species, the melon fruit fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) and the newly invasive Bactrocera invadens Drew, Tsuruta, and White; and one Dacus species, the lesser pumpkin fly, Dacus ciliatus Loew. No parasitoids were obtained from eggs while all larval stages were suitable though at varying degrees. Parasitism and number of progeny was related to host age in a curvilinear manner with maxima at 4- to 5-day-old larvae. By contrast, development time decreased with age of host larvae while sex ratio was not affected. The intrinsic rate of increase was 0.17 ± 0.01; gross and net reproductive rates were 64.9 ± 4.3 and 44.9 ± 3.8, respectively. Non-ovipositing females lived significantly longer than ovipositing ones. The females accepted all host species tested, but only C. capitata, D. ciliatus and, to a much lesser extent, C. cosyra were suitable. In the remaining host species, most eggs were encapsulated. In C. capitata and D. ciliatus, percent parasitism was similar, but number of progeny was lower and the sex ratio, as the proportion of females, was higher when the parasitoid was reared on D. ciliatus. Progeny per puparium were also similar for the two hosts. In the light of these results it can be concluded that T. giffardii has a narrow host range, but it attacks and successfully develops in larvae representing a wide range of ages.     

The eggshell of the cherry fly Rhagoletis cerasi

One of the major pests in Greek cherry orchards is the cherry fly Rhagoletis cerasi (Diptera: Tephritidae). In order to complete our comparative work on the chorion assembly of other representatives of the fruit flies (e.g. Ceratitis capitata and Dacus oleae) we studied eggshell morphogenesis in the cherry fly. The oocyte is surrounded by several distinct layers which are produced during choriogenesis. The eggshell consists of the vitelline membrane, a fibrous layer of possible water-proofing function, an innermost chorionic layer, endochorionic and exochorionic layers. The endochorion shows a branched configuration with irregular cavities, and the exochorion consists of inner and outer layers for better embryo protection. At the anterior region of the follicle, the hexagonal borders of the follicle cells are created by endochorionic material, covered by both inner and outer exochorion. This area resembles the D. melanogaster chorionic appendages and therefore can serve for plastron respiration. The structural results support the phylogenetic relationships among the tephritids (Rhagoletis is closer to Ceratitis than Dacus). The presence of peroxidase in the endochorion, detected by diaminobenzidine, is consistent with the eggshell hardening at the end of choriogenesis, following the same pattern with the other fruit flies studied so far. Two major chorionic proteins are found both in R. cerasi and in C. capitata and therefore general conclusions can be drawn from this study, concerning the pattern of choriogenesis, which all dipteran insects follow, in order to create a resistant and functional eggshell, and the high conservation of the proteinaceous components of the chorion among species in the order.     

New contributions towards the understanding of the phylogenetic relationships among economically important fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) are a species-rich and economically important group. The phylogenetic relationships among the many taxa are still to be fully resolved and the monophyly of several groups is still to be confirmed. This paper reports a study of the phylogenetic relationships among 23 economically important tephritid species (representing several major lineages of the family) which examines the sequence of a region of mitochondrial DNA encompassing the cytb, tRNA(Ser) and ND1 genes. Substitutions characteristic of particular taxa were found that could help classify members of the family at any developmental stage. The trees obtained by the maximum parsimony, neighbour joining and maximum likelihood methods were generally compatible with present morphological classification patterns. However, the data reveal some characteristics of the phylogenetic relationships of this family that do not agree with present classifications. The results support the probable non-monophyletic nature of the subfamily Trypetinae and suggest that Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillet) is more closely related to the genus Dacus than to other species of Bactrocera.     

Molecular phylogeny of tephritid fruit flies in the Bactrocera tau complex using the mitochondrial COI sequences.

We compared sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene of eight species of the Bactrocera tau complex using Bactrocera dorsalis, Bactrocera pyrifoliae, Ceratitis capitata, Anopheles gambiae, and Locusta migratoria as outgroups. A 639-bp variable region was sequenced. The sequence divergence between species in the B. tau complex ranged from 0.06 to 28%, and up to 29% between the complex and its tephritid outgroups, B. dorsalis and C. capitata. According to the phylogenetic relationships, these members of the B. tau complex could be classified into four clades. Thus, species A and D form clades 1 and 3, respectively, while species C and I belong to clade 4. However, species B, E, and F form a distinct group, clade 2, and infested the fruits of non-cucurbit hosts. Host-plant shifts resulting in adaptive radiation and premating isolation among species might play an important role in species differentiation of the B. tau complex.     

Autophagy is Required for the Degeneration of the Ovarian Follicular Epithelium in Higher Diptera

Autophagy is a major pathway for the degradation of long-lived proteins and cytoplasmic organelles and an essential part of programmed cell death, as well. Our findings indicate that programmed cell death of the ovarian follicle cells in the higher Diptera species Bactrocera oleae and Ceratitis capitata manifests features of autophagic cell death. The follicle cells during the developmental stage 14 contain autophagic vacuoles and they do not exhibit caspase activity in any area of the egg chamber. Their nuclei are characterized by condensed chromatin, accompanied with high—but not low—molecular weight DNA fragmentation events exclusively detected in distinct cells of the anterior pole. The above results are likely associated with the abundant phagocytosis observed at the entry of the lateral oviducts, where numerous cell bodies are massively engulfed by epithelial cells. The similarity of the cell death process among B. oleae, C. capitata and Drosophila melanogaster species strongly suggests that autophagy-mediated cell death is conserved in higher Diptera species.

Addendum to:

Programmed Cell Death of Follicular Epithelium during the Late Developmental Stages of Oogenesis in the Fruit Flies Bactrocera oleae and Ceratitis capitata (Diptera, Tephritidae) is Mediated by Autophagy

I.P. Nezis, D.J. Stravopodis, L.H. Margaritis and I.S. Papassideri

Dev Growth Differ 2006; 48:189-98     

Permanent Genetic Resources added to Molecular Ecology Resources Database 1 April 2011-31 May 2011

This article documents the addition of 92 microsatellite marker loci to the Molecular Ecology Resources Database. Loci were developed for the following species: Anopheles minimus, An. sinensis, An. dirus, Calephelis mutica, Lutjanus kasmira, Murella muralis and Orchestia montagui. These loci were cross-tested on the following species: Calephelis arizonensi, Calephelis borealis, Calephelis nemesis, Calephelis virginiensis and Lutjanus bengalensis.     

Permanent Genetic Resources added to the Molecular Ecology Resources Database 1 February 2010-31 March 2010

This article documents the addition of 228 microsatellite marker loci to the Molecular Ecology Resources Database. Loci were developed for the following species: Anser cygnoides, Apodemus flavicollis, Athene noctua, Cercis canadensis, Glis glis, Gubernatrix cristata, Haliotis tuberculata, Helianthus maximiliani, Laricobius nigrinus, Laricobius rubidus, Neoheligmonella granjoni, Nephrops norvegicus, Oenanthe javanica, Paramuricea clavata, Pyrrhura orcesi and Samanea saman. These loci were cross-tested on the following species: Apodemus sylvaticus, Laricobius laticollis and Laricobius osakensis (a proposed new species currently being described).     

MORPHOLOGY OF THE IMMATURE STAGES OF DACUS TRYONI (FROGGATT) (DIPTERA: TEPHRITIDAE)

Abstract
External features of the puparium, larvae and egg of the Queensland fruit fly, Dacus (Bactrocera) tryoni (Froggatt) were studied by scanning electron microscopy and significant morphological characters are described and illustrated. Cephalopharyngeal skeletons are described from examination by light microscopy.     

The complete nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial genome of the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The complete mitochondrial genome of the oriental fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis s.s. has been sequenced, and is here described and compared with the homologous sequences of Bactrocera oleae and Ceratitis capitata. The genome is a circular molecule of 15,915 bp, and encodes the set of 37 genes generally found in animal mitochondrial genomes. The structure and organization of the molecule is typical and similar to the two closely related species B. oleae and C. capitata, although it presents an interesting case of putative intra-molecular recombination. The relevance of the growing comparative dataset of tephritid complete mitochondrial genomes is discussed in relation to the possibility to develop robust assays for species discrimination in quarantine and agricultural monitoring practices, as well as basic phylogeography/population genetic studies.     

Development of immature stages and comparative demography of two cucurbit-attacking fruit flies in Reunion Island: Bactrocera cucurbitae and Dacus ciliatus (Diptera Tephritidae)

On Reunion Island, two species of Dacini, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) and Dacus ciliatus Loew, infest 16 host plant species belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae from sea level to 1,600 m. These two species represent two primary pests of this plant family on the island. Melon fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae, and Ethiopian fruit fly, D. ciliatus, larval development was studied at four different constant temperatures (15, 20, 25, and 30 degrees C) with three host plants (cucumber, pumpkin, and squash). Adult life histories of these two species were studied at 25 degrees C with the three host plants. The results led to the conclusion that B. cucurbitae had a faster egg incubation time. Its preimaginal instars developed significantly faster than those of D. ciliatus independent of temperature. B. cucurbitae and D. ciliatus had similar mean preoviposition duration and egg hatching success. Fecundity was significantly higher for the melon fly on cucumber and pumpkin and lower on squash. Two distinctly different life- history patterns were evident: (1) later onset of reproduction, longer oviposition time, longer life span, and higher fecundity (B. cucurbitae) and (2) early reproduction, lower oviposition time, shorter life span, and lower fecundity (D. ciliatus). These results are useful for improving laboratory-rearing methods and for building simulation models to predict Dacini population dynamics.