Immobilization of glucose oxidase and lactate dehydrogenase onto magnetic nanoparticles for bioprocess monitoring system

Glucose oxidase (GOD) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were immobilized onto magnetic nanoparticles, viz. Fe₃O₄, via carbodiimide and glutaraldehyde. The immobilization efficiency was largely dependent upon the immobilization time and concentration of glutaraldehyde. The magnetic nanoparticles had a mean diameter of 9.3 nm and were superparamagnetic. The immobilization of GOD and LDH on the nanoparticles slightly decreased their saturation magnetization. However, the FT-IR spectra showed that GOD and LDH were immobilized onto the nanoparticles by different binding mechanisms, the reason for which was not well explained. The optimum pH values of the immobilized GOD and LDH were changed to 8 and 10, respectively. The free and immobilized enzyme kinetic parameters (K_m and V_max) were determined by Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetics. The Km values for free and immobilized GOD were 0.168 and 0.324 mM, respectively, while those for free and immobilized LDH were 0.19 and 0.163 mM for NAD, and 2.976 and 4.785 mM for lactate, respectively. High operational stability was observed, with more than 80% of the initial enzyme activity being retained for the immobilized GOD up to 12 h and for the immobilized LDH up to 24 h. The immobilized GOD was applied to a sequential injection analysis system for the application of bioprocess monitoring.     

Heterologous expression of Zygosaccharomyces rouxii glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene (ZrGPD1) and glycerol dehydrogenase gene (ZrGCY1) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

We examined the effects of heterologous expression of the open reading frames (ORF) of two genes on salt tolerance and glycerol production in a Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain deficient in glycerol synthesis (gpd1Deltagpd2Delta). When the ORF of the Zygosaccharomyces rouxii glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene (ZrGPD1) was expressed under the control of the GAL10 promoter, salt tolerance and glycerol production increased; when the ORF of the glycerol dehydrogenase gene (ZrGCY1) was expressed under the control of the GAL1 promoter, no such changes were observed. Zrgcy1p had a weak effect on glycerol production. These results suggest that Zrgpd1p is the primary enzyme involved in Z. rouxii glycerol production, following a mechanism similar to that of S. cerevisiae (Gpd1p). When the ORFs of the S. cerevisiae glycerol 3-phosphatase gene (GPP2) and ZrGPD1 were simultaneously expressed, glycerol production increased, compared with that in yeast expressing only ZrGPD1.     

Immobilization of active human carboxylesterase 1 in biomimetic silica nanoparticles

The encapsulation of proteins in biomimetic silica has recently been shown to successfully maintain enzymes in their active state. Organophosphate (OP) compounds are used as pesticides as well as potent chemical warfare nerve agents. Because these toxicants are life threatening, we sought to generate biomimetic silicas capable of responding to OPs. Here, we present the silica encapsulation of human drug metabolism enzyme carboxylesterase 1 (hCE1) in the presence of a range of catalysts. hCE1 was successfully encapsulated into silica particles when lysozyme or the peptide R5 were used as catalysts; in contrast, polyethyleneimine, a catalyst used to encapuslate other enzymes, did not facilitate hCE1 entrapment. hCE1 silica particles in a column chromatography format respond to the presence of the OP pesticides paraoxon and dimethyl-p-nitrophenyl phosphate in solution. These results may lead to novel approaches to detect OP pesticides or other weaponized agents that bind hCE1.     

Conversion of glycerol to 1,3-dihydroxyacetone by glycerol dehydrogenase co-expressed with an NADH oxidase for cofactor regeneration

Objectives

To investigate the efficiency of a cofactor regeneration enzyme co-expressed with a glycerol dehydrogenase for the production of 1,3-dihydroxyacetone (DHA).

Results

In vitro biotransformation of glycerol was achieved with the cell-free extracts containing recombinant GlyDH (glycerol dehydrogenase from Escherichia coli), LDH (lactate dehydrogenase form Bacillus subtilis) or LpNox1 (NADH oxidase from Lactobacillus pentosus), giving DHA at 1.3 g l^?1 (GlyDH/LDH) and 2.2 g l^?1 (GlyDH/LpNox1) with total turnover number (TTN) of NAD⁺ recycling of 6039 and 11100, respectively. Whole cells of E. coli (GlyDH–LpNox1) co-expressing both GlyDH and LpNox1 were constructed and converted 10 g glycerol l^?1 to DHA at 0.2–0.5 g l^?1 in the presence of zero to 2 mM exogenous NAD⁺. The cell free extract of E. coli (GlyDH–LpNox) converted glycerol (2–50 g l^?1) to DHA from 0.5 to 4.0 g l^?1 (8–25 % conversion) without exogenous NAD⁺.

Conclusions

The disadvantage of the expensive consumption of NAD⁺ for the production of DHA has been overcome.

     

Use of glycerol for producing 1,3-dihydroxyacetone by Gluconobacter oxydans in an airlift bioreactor

1,3-Dihydroxyacetone can be produced by biotransformation of glycerol with glycerol dehydrogenase from Gluconobacter oxydans cells. Firstly, improvement the activity of glycerol dehydrogenase was carried out by medium optimization. The optimal medium for cell cultivation was composed of 5.6 g/l yeast extract, 4.7 g/l glycerol, 42.1 g/l mannitol, 0.5 g/l K₂HPO₄, 0.5 g/l KH₂PO₄, 0.1 g/l MgSO₄·7H₂O, and 2.0 g/l CaCO₃ with the initial pH of 4.9. Secondly, an internal loop airlift bioreactor was applied for DHA production from glycerol by resting cells of G. oxydans ZJB09113. Furthermore, the effects of pH, aeration rate and cell content on DHA production and glycerol feeding strategy were investigated. 156.3 ± 7.8 g/l of maximal DHA concentration with 89.8 ± 2.4% of conversion rate of glycerol to DHA was achieved after 72 h of biotransformation using 10 g/l resting cells at 30 °C, pH 5.0 and 1.5 vvm of aeration rate.     

Cloning and characterization of a plastidic glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase cDNA from Dunaliella salina

A cDNA encoding a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) -dependent glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) has been cloned by rapid amplification of cDNA ends from Dunaliella salina. The cDNA is 3032 base pairs long with an open reading frame encoding a polypeptide of 701 amino acids. The polypeptide shows high homology with published NAD+ -dependent GPDHs and has at its N-terminal a chloroplast targeting sequence. RNA gel blot analysis was performed to study GPDH gene expression under different conditions, and changes of the glycerol content were monitored. The results indicate that the cDNA may encode an osmoregulated isoform primarily involved in glycerol synthesis. The 701-amino-acid polypeptide is about 300 amino acids longer than previously reported plant NAD+ -dependent GPDHs. This 300-amino-acid fragment has a phosphoserine phosphatase domain. We suggest that the phosphoserine phosphatase domain functions as glycerol 3-phosphatase and that, consequently, NAD+ -dependent GPDH from D. salina can catalyze the step from dihydroxyacetone phosphate to glycerol directly. This is unique and a possible explanation for the fast glycerol synthesis found in D. salina.     

Immobilization of proteins on magnetic nanoparticles

Magnetic nanoparticles prepared from an alkaline solution of divalent and trivalent iron ions could covalently bind protein via the activation ofN-ethyl-N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC). Trypsin and avidin were taken as the model proteins for the formation of protein-nanoparticle conjugates. The immobilized yield of protein increased with molar ratio of EDC/nanoparticle. Higher concentrations of added protein could yield higher immobilized protein densities on the particles. In contrast to EDC, the yields of protein immobilization via the activation of cyanamide were relatively lower. Nanoparticles bound with avidin could attach a single-stranded DNA through the avidin-biotin interaction and hybridize with a DNA probe. The DNA hybridization was confirmed by fluorescence microscopy observations. Immobilized DNA on nanoparticles by this technique may have widespread applicability to the detection of specific nucleic acid sequence and targeting of DNA to particular cells.     

Effects of over-expression of glycerol dehydrogenase and 1,3-propanediol oxidoreductase on bioconversion of glycerol into 1,3-propandediol by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Klebsiella pneumoniae</Emphasis> under micro-aerobic conditions

Glycerol dehydrogenase (GDH) and 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PD) oxidoreductase had been proved two key enzymes for 1,3-PD production by Klebsiella pneumoniae. Fed-batch fermentations of the recombinant K. pneumoniae strains, over-expressing the two enzymes individually, were carried out under micro-aerobic conditions, and the behaviors of the recombinants were investigated. Results showed that over-expression of 1,3-PD oxidoreductase did not affect the concentration of 1,3-PD. However, it enhanced the molar yield from 50.6 to 64.0% and reduced the concentration of by-products. Among them, the concentrations of lactic acid, ethanol and succinic acid were decreased by 51.8, 50.6 and 47.4%, respectively. Moreover, in the recombinant the maximal concentration of 3-hydroxypropionaldehyde decreased by 73.6%. Over-expression of GDH decreased the yield of ethanol and 2,3-butanediol, meanwhile it increased the concentration of acetic acid. No significant changes were observed both in 1,3-PD yield and glycerol flux distributed to oxidative branch.     

Immobilization of recombinant pectate lyase from Clostridium thermocellum ATCC‐27405 on magnetic nanoparticles for bioscouring of cotton fabric

Recombinant pectate lyase from family 1 polysaccharide lyase (PL1B) was immobilized on synthesized magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) after 1‐ethyl‐3‐(3‐dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride activation. At 70 mg/mL MNPs 100% binding of 1 mg/mL PL1B was achieved. The immobilized PL1B‐MNP displayed activity of 20.3 and 18.2 U/mg against polygalacturonic acid and citrus pectin, respectively, which was higher than the activity of free PL1B, on the same substrates of 17.8 and 16.2 U/mg. The immobilized PL1B‐MNP showed 32 fold and 14 fold enhanced thermal stability at 80°C and 90°C, respectively as compared with free PL1B at same temperatures. At high temperature the immobilized PL1B‐MNP retained its activity for a longer duration than free PL1B. The immobilized PL1B‐MNP could be reused till five cycles and after that it retained 70% of initial activity. It could be easily recovered from the reaction mixture with the help of a magnet. Bioscouring of cotton fabric was carried out with immobilized PL1B‐MNP which showed efficient removal of pectin from the fabric surface. The enhanced wettability of fabric resulted in the decrease of the water absorbing time period from 3 min taken by the free PL1B treated fabric to 15 s taken by the immobilized PL1B‐MNP treated fabric. As per our knowledge this is the first attempt of bioscouring of coarse cotton fabric by pectinase immobilized on magnetic nanoparticles. © 2016 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 33:231–244, 2017     

Immobilization of Mucor javanicus lipase on effectively functionalized silica nanoparticles

Mucor javanicus lipase was effectively immobilized on silica nanoparticles which were prepared by Stöber method. Glycidyl methacrylate (GMA), which bears a reactive epoxide group, was incorporated onto the surface of the nanoparticles and the epoxide groups were directly used for multipoint coupling of the enzyme. We also introduced amine residues by coupling ethylene diamine (EDA) to the epoxide group of GMA. M. javanicus lipase was covalently immobilized onto the amine-activated silica nanoparticles by using glutaraldehyde (GA) or 1,4 phenylene diisothiocyanate (NCS) as a coupling agent. The lipase loading capacities of the EDA-GA and EDA-NCS nanoparticles (81.3 and 60.9 mg g⁻¹, respectively) were much higher than that of the unmodified GMA nanoparticles (18.9 mg g⁻¹). The relative hydrolytic activities in an aqueous medium of the lipases immobilized on EDA-GA and EDA-NCS attached silica nanoparticles (115% and 107%, respectively) were significantly high and almost in the same range with the free enzyme. This may be due to the improvement of the enzyme–substrate interaction by avoiding the potential aggregation of free lipase molecules. The immobilized lipases were also more resistant to temperature inactivation than the free form. This work demonstrates that the size-controlled silica nanoparticles can be efficiently employed as host materials for enzyme immobilization leading to high activity and stability of the immobilized enzymes.     

Strain engineering for microbial production of value-added chemicals and fuels from glycerol

While the widespread reliance on fossil fuels is driven by their low cost and relative abundance, this fossil-based economy has been deemed unsustainable and, therefore, the adoption of sustainable and environmentally compatible energy sources is on the horizon. Biorefinery is an emerging approach that integrates metabolic engineering, synthetic biology, and systems biology principles for the development of whole-cell catalytic platforms for biomanufacturing. Due to the high degree of reduction and low cost, glycerol, either refined or crude, has been recognized as an ideal feedstock for the production of value-added biologicals, though microbial dissimilation of glycerol sometimes can be difficult particularly under anaerobic conditions. While strain development for glycerol biorefinery is widely reported in the literature, few, if any, commercialized bioprocesses have been developed as a result, such that engineering of glycerol metabolism in microbial hosts remains an untapped opportunity in biomanufacturing. Here we review the recent progress made in engineering microbial hosts for the production of biofuels, diols, organic acids, biopolymers, and specialty chemicals from glycerol. We begin with a broad outline of the major pathways for fermentative and respiratory glycerol dissimilation and key end metabolites, and then focus our analysis on four key genera of bacteria known to naturally dissimilate glycerol, i.e. Klebsiella, Citrobacter, Clostridium, and Lactobacillus, in addition to Escherichia coli, and systematically review the progress made toward engineering these microorganisms for glycerol biorefinery. We also identify the major biotechnological and bioprocessing advantages and disadvantages of each genus, and bottlenecks limiting the production of target metabolites from glycerol in engineered strains. Our analysis culminates in the development of potential strategies to overcome the current technical limitations identified for commonly employed strains, with an outlook on the suitability of different hosts for the production of key metabolites and avenues for their future development into biomanufacturing platforms.     

A novel nanobiosensor for the detection of paraoxon using chitosan-embedded organophosphorus hydrolase immobilized on Au nanoparticles

Organophosphorus (OP) compounds are one of the most hazardous chemicals used as insecticides/pesticide in agricultural practices. A large variety of OP compounds are hydrolyzed by organophosphorus hydrolases (OPH; EC 3.1.8.1). Therefore, OPHs are among the most suitable candidates that could be used in designing enzyme-based sensors for detecting OP compounds. In this work, a novel nanobiosensor for the detection of paraoxon was designed and fabricated. More specifically, OPH was covalently embedded onto chitosan and the enzyme–chitosan bioconjugate was then immobilized on negatively charged gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) electrostatically. The enzyme was immobilized on AuNPs without chitosan as well, to compare the two systems in terms of detection limit and enzyme stability under different pH and temperature conditions. Coumarin 1, a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme, was used as a fluorogenic probe. The emission of coumarin 1 was effectively quenched by the immobilized Au-NPs when bound to the developed nanobioconjugates. However, in the presence of paraoxon, coumarin 1 left the nanobioconjugate, leading to enhanced fluorescence intensity. Moreover, compared to the immobilized enzyme without chitosan, the chitosan-immobilized enzyme was found to possess decreased K_m value by more than 50%, and increased V_max and K_cat values by around 15% and 74%, respectively. Higher stability within a wider range of pH (2–12) and temperature (25–90°C) was also achieved. The method worked in the 0 to 1050?nM concentration ranges, and had a detection limit as low as 5?×?10^?11 M.     

Amino acid residues responsible for the recognition of dichloroacetate by pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 2

Dichloroacetate (DCA) is a promising anticancer and antidiabetic compound targeting the mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDHK). This study was undertaken in order to map the DCA-binding site of PDHK2. Here, we present evidence that R114, S83, I157 and, to some extent, H115 are essential for DCA binding. We also show that Y80 and D117 are required for the communication between the DCA-binding site and active site of PDHK2. These observations provide important insights into the mechanism of DCA action that may be useful for the design of new, more potent therapeutic compounds.     

Immobilization of β-Glucuronidase on Pellicular Nylon

β-Glucuronidase (EC 3.2.1.31), From Patella vulgala, was immobilized on a pellicular, polyethyleneimine-derivatized nylon net. Several types of nylon nets were used in order to ensure the best relationship between activity of the immobilized enzyme and net characteristics. No differences were observed between the two most used reagents for nylon activation by alkylation under standard working conditions. The influence of attachment by several protein aminoacidic side chains was determined, and enzyme immobilization involving lysyl and tyrosyl protein residues showed better activity. Coupling conditions for these derivatives have been optimized by studying the influence of p^H, temperature and reaction time on derivative activity. The saturation profiles obtained for these derivatives showed a high protein content, 30mg/g, for a non-porous support. Characterization of these derivatives against p^H, ionic strength and temperature was also studied, and no differences were found between soluble and immobilized activity-profiles apart from those found when thermal stability studies were performed. High stability towards intermittent use was found when assayed against p-nitrophenylglucuronide as substrate. After 18 months of use a loss of activity of only 22 and 33% for derivatives through lysyl and tyrosyl residues, respectively, was observed.     

Interruption of glycerol pathway in industrial alcoholic yeasts to improve the ethanol production

The two homologous genes GPD1 and GPD2, encoding two isoenzymes of NAD⁺-dependent glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase in industrial yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae CICIMY0086, had been deleted. The obtained two kinds of mutants gpd1Δ and gpd2Δ were studied under alcoholic fermentation conditions. gpd1Δ mutants exhibited a 4.29% (relative to the amount of substrate consumed) decrease in glycerol production and 6.83% (relative to the amount of substrate consumed) increased ethanol yield while gpd2Δ mutants exhibited a 7.95% (relative to the amount of substrate consumed) decrease in glycerol production and 7.41% (relative to the amount of substrate consumed) increased ethanol yield compared with the parental strain. The growth rate of the two mutants were slightly lower than that of the wild type under the exponential phase whereas ANG1 (gpd1Δ) and the decrease in glycerol production was not accompanied by any decline in the protein content of the strain ANG1 (gpd1Δ) but a slight decrease in the strain ANG2 (gpd2Δ). Meanwhile, dramatic decrease of acetate acid formation was observed in strain ANG1 (gpd1Δ) and ANG2 (gpd2Δ) compared to the parental strain. Therefore, it is possible to improve the ethanol yield by interruption of glycerol pathway in industrial alcoholic yeast.     

Binding of pyruvate dehydrogenase to the core of the human pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

In human (h) pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) the pyruvate dehydrogenase (E1) is bound to the E1-binding domain of dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase (E2). The C-terminal surface of the E1beta subunit was scanned for the negatively charged residues involved in binding with E2. betaD289 of hE1 interacts with K276 of hE2 in a manner similar to the corresponding interaction in Bacillus stearothermophilus PDC. In contrast to bacterial E1beta, the C-terminal residue of the hE1beta does not participate in the binding with positively charged residues of hE2. This latter finding shows species specificity in the interaction between hE1beta and hE2 in PDC.     

Evaluation of a silica-coated magnetic nanoparticle for the immobilization of a His-tagged lipase

Magnetic particles of size 10 nm have been coated with silica to a mean diameter of 40 nm and charged with Cu²⁺ ions via a multidentate ligand, iminodiacetic acid (IDA), for the immobilization of His-tagged Bacillus stearothermopilus L1 lipase. Microporous (average pore diameter of 60 Å) silica gel with a mean particle diameter of 115 µm has been used as a comparative support material. The molar ratio of Cu²⁺ to IDA was found to be 1:1.14 and 1:1.99 in the silica gel and the silica-coated magnetic nanoparticles (SiMNs), respectively. The specific activity of the immobilized enzyme was found to conform to the following order: Cu²⁺-charged SiMN>SiMN>Cu²⁺-charged silica gel>silica gel. When it was immobilized on the Cu²⁺-charged SiMNs, over 70% of the initial activity of the lipase remained after it had been reused five times. However, only 20% of the initial activity remained after the enzyme immobilized on the Cu²⁺-charged silica gel had been reused five times. For the enzyme immobilized on supports without Cu²⁺ cations, all activity was lost after threefold reuse. The differences in the specific activities and the efficiencies of reuse of the enzymes immobilized on the various support materials are discussed in terms of immobilization mechanisms (physical adsorption vs. coordination bonding), mass transfer of a substrate and a product of the enzyme reaction, and the status of the Cu (Cu bound to the IDA on the silica layer vs. Cu directly adsorbed on the silica layer).     

Crystal structures of human glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase 1 (GPD1)

Homo sapiens L-alpha-glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase 1 (GPD1) catalyzes the reversible biological conversion of dihydroxyacetone (DHAP) to glycerol-3-phosphate. The GPD1 protein was expressed in Escherichia coli, and purified as a fusion protein with glutathione S-transferase. Here we report the apoenzyme structure of GPD1 determined by multiwavelength anomalous diffraction phasing, and other complex structures with small molecules (NAD+ and DHAP) by the molecular replacement method. This enzyme structure is organized into two distinct domains, the N-terminal eight-stranded beta-sheet sandwich domain and the C-terminal helical substrate-binding domain. An electrophilic catalytic mechanism by the epsilon-NH3+ group of Lys204 is proposed on the basis of the structural analyses. In addition, the inhibitory effects of zinc and sulfate on GPDHs are assayed and discussed.     

Immobilization of enzymes on spheron: 1. Trypsin and glucoamylase by the titanium-chelation method

In a preliminary study, trypsin (EC 3.4.21.4) and glucoamylase (exo-1,4-α-d-glucosidase, 1,4-α-d-glucan glucohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.3) were immobilized on Spheron by the titanium-chelation method. The activity of trypsin immobilized on Spheron P100 000 was higher against tosyl-l-arginine 4-nitroanilide than against casein. The variation in the specific activities of glucoamylase immobilized on Spherons of different porosities to wards substrates of different molecular weights was examined.     

Mitochondrial NAD dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase either from yeast or human replaces yeast cytoplasmic NADP dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase for the aerobic growth of yeast on ethanol

Background

In a previous study, we deleted three aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) genes, involved in ethanol metabolism, from yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and found that the triple deleted yeast strain did not grow on ethanol as sole carbon source. The ALDHs were NADP dependent cytosolic ALDH1, NAD dependent mitochondrial ALDH2 and NAD/NADP dependent mitochondrial ALDH5. Double deleted strain ΔALDH2+ΔALDH5 or ΔALDH1+ΔALDH5 could grow on ethanol. However, the double deleted strain ΔALDH1+ΔALDH2 did not grow in ethanol.

Methods

Triple deleted yeast strain was used. Mitochondrial NAD dependent ALDH from yeast or human was placed in yeast cytosol.

Results

In the present study we found that a mutant form of cytoplasmic ALDH1 with very low activity barely supported the growth of the triple deleted strain (ΔALDH1+ΔALDH2+ΔALDH5) on ethanol. Finding the importance of NADP dependent ALDH1 on the growth of the strain on ethanol we examined if NAD dependent mitochondrial ALDH2 either from yeast or human would be able to support the growth of the triple deleted strain on ethanol if the mitochondrial form was placed in cytosol. We found that the NAD dependent mitochondrial ALDH2 from yeast or human was active in cytosol and supported the growth of the triple deleted strain on ethanol.

Conclusion

This study showed that coenzyme preference of ALDH is not critical in cytosol of yeast for the growth on ethanol.

General significance

The present study provides a basis to understand the coenzyme preference of ALDH in ethanol metabolism in yeast.