Forms of the Word and the Mystery of the Objectified Nature of the Word

The time has come to proceed from forms of givenness of the word to forms of the word as such. They can, if you like, be called external and inner structures. Humboldt, however, preferred to speak of the external and inner forms of the language. Shpet adopted precisely this distinction. Why did this problem interest Shpet? Already in [Appearance and sense], he had set the task of returning to the source of pretheoretical, living science. Shpet wrote that the outer cover of words and logical expressions obscure the objectified meaning and that it was necessary to remove another cover from the objectified sign so as to grasp a certain genuine intimacy, and in it the fullness of being (Shpet, 1914. Pp. 5-6). We shall keep in mind this major undertaking posed by this scientist. The existence of the inner form of words should not come as a surprise. That same year (1914) Ortega y Gasset wrote that material objects have a third dimension. However, we cannot see or touch it: "For just as depth needs a surface beneath which to be concealed, the surface, or outer cover, in order to be so, needs something over which to spread, covering it" (Ortega y Gasset, 2000. Pp. 62-63).     

Topography of the contours of the inner surface of the wall of the left ventricle of the heart in systole

Chosen at random 38 diastolic preparations of human hearts from persons having not any cardiac pathology, as demonstrate the postmortem examination, have been investigated. The left ventricle casts have been made during the first 24 hours after death according to a strictly fixed technique by means of filling the cardiac chambers with polymere mass--protacryl--under a physiological pressure of the diastolic filling. The trabecules are arranged as a spiral from the apex of the ventricle up to the atrioventricular fibrous ring, with approaching the apex the spiral step increases and the trabecules straighten. The left ventricle cast is devided into some planes, the envelopes and the trabecularity lines are measured. Average values of the shift in the trabecularity lines I, II, III and in the cross sections B, C, D, E are defined in relation to the plane A and in every case in relation to the previous plane Cn-1. The data obtained are presented in tables and diagrams. The greatest shift demonstrate the trabecularity lines I running predominantly along the posterior wall of the left ventricle in the planes B and which are situated nearer to the atrioventricular ring projection. Owing to the presence of the spiral-shaped course of the trabecules, it is possible to suppose that it influences the blood stream twisting clockwise in the left ventricle during the diastole phase. This indicates the necessity to work out some new constructions of artificial cardiac valves, securing the twisted blood stream. The condition mentioned should be taken into consideration while making prostheses of the cardiac valves.     

Drainage of the prelymphatics of the brain via the adventitia of the vertebral artery

Carbon particles injected into the cortex of the cerebellum of the rat were found in the Virchow-Robin spaces of the adjacent capillaries, and in the adventitia of the cerebellar artery, basilar artery and vertebral artery--both inside and outside the skull. They were also found in some portions of the deeper cervical lymph nodes. However, while tracers injected into the cerebral hemispheres are drained via the tissue channels in the adventitia of the internal carotid arteries, tracers injected into the cerebellar hemispheres are drained via those of the vertebral arteries.     

Individual variability in the structure of the walls of the principal trunks of the subcutaneous veins of the lower extremities of the human fetus

Certain regional peculiarities are noted in the development process of the human principle trunks of the subcutaneous veins during antenatal period. In the fetuses of all ages the wall thickness of the subcutaneous veins is the greatest in the femur, and the middle tunic is better developed in the shin. The vein structure depends on the type of architectonics: at the magistral type (86%) the walls in the large and minor subcutaneous veins are thick with well developed smooth myocytes and connective tissue fibers; at the reticulate type (14%) the walls are thin, their elements are poorly developed. When there is mentioned varicosity of the lower extremity veins in the parents' anamnesis, in fetuses (57%) all the tunics in the venous wall develop more poorly, there is retardation in formation of smooth myocytes and in maturation of collagen fibers. This results in less amount of contractile structures in the middle tunic and optic density of collagen is less manifected.     

Dissymmetry of the origins of the roots of the spinal cord in the dog

The spinal cord in 25 non-inbred dogs has been studied macro-microscopically. The dissymmetry in the arrangement level in the right and left root bases on the dorsal surface of the spinal cord is much greater than on the ventral surface. The same as in the human being, the dissymmetry is the greatest in the thoracic part (as compared to other spinal parts). On the ventral surface of the spinal cord both along the anterior and posterior margin of the root bases, there is a right-sided dissymmetry (with cranial shift); on the dorsal surface it is present only at the roots along the posterior margin. The dissymmetry of the dog spinal cord is quantitatively estimated along its whole extension.     

On the origin of the Hirudinea and the demise of the Oligochaeta

The phylogenetic relationships of the Clitellata were investigated with a data set of published and new complete 18S rRNA gene sequences of 51 species representing 41 families. Sequences were aligned on the basis of a secondary structure model and analysed with maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood. In contrast to the latter method, parsimony did not recover the monophyly of Clitellata. However, a close scrutiny of the data suggested a spurious attraction between some polychaetes and clitellates. As a rule, molecular trees are closely aligned with morphology-based phylogenies. Acanthobdellida and Euhirudinea were reconciled in their traditional Hirudinea clade and were included in the Oligochaeta with the Branchiobdellida via the Lumbriculidae as a possible link between the two assemblages. While the 18S gene yielded a meaningful historical signal for determining relationships within clitellates, the exact position of Hirudinea and Branchiobdellida within oligochaetes remained unresolved. The lack of phylogenetic signal is interpreted as evidence for a rapid radiation of these taxa. The placement of Clitellata within the Polychaeta remained unresolved. The biological reality of polytomies within annelids is suggested and supports the hypothesis of an extremely ancient radiation of polychaetes and emergence of clitellates.     

On the ontogeny of the haptor and the evolution of the Monogenea

Data on the ontogeny of the posterior haptor of monogeneans were obtained from more than 150 publications and summarised. These data were plotted into diagrams showing evolutionary capacity levels based on the theory of a progressive evolution of marginal hooks, anchors and other attachment components of the posterior haptor in the Monogenea (Malmberg, 1986). 5 + 5 unhinged marginal hooks are assumed to be the most primitive monogenean haptoral condition. Thus the diagrams were founded on a 5 + 5 unhinged marginal hook evolutionary capacity level, and the evolutionary capacity levels of anchors and other haptoral attachement components were arranged according to haptoral ontogenetical sequences. In the final plotting diagram data on hosts, type of spermatozoa, oncomiracidial ciliation, sensilla pattern and protonephridial systems were also included. In this way a number of correlations were revealed. Thus, for example, the number of 5 + 5 marginal hooks correlates with the most primitive monogenean type of spermatozoon and with few sensillae, many ciliated cells and a simple protonephridial system in the oncomiracidium. On the basis of the reviewed data it is concluded that the ancient monogeneans with 5 + 5 unhinged marginal hooks were divided into two main lines, one retaining unhinged marginal hooks and the other evolving hinged marginal hooks. Both main lines have recent representatives at different marginal hook evolutionary capacity levels, i.e. monogeneans retaining a haptor with only marginal hooks. For the main line with hinged marginal hooks the name Articulon-choinea n. subclass is proposed. Members with 8 + 8 hinged marginal hooks only are here called Proanchorea n. superord. Monogeneans with unhinged marginal hooks only are here called Ananchorea n. superord. and three new families are erected for its recent members: Anonchohapteridae n. fam., Acolpentronidae n. fam. and Anacanthoridae n. fam. (with 7 + 7, 8 + 8 and 9 + 9 unhinged marginal hooks, respectively). Except for the families of Articulonchoinea (e.g. Acanthocotylidae, Gyrodactylidae, Tetraonchoididae) Bychowsky's (1957) division of the Monogenea into the Oligonchoinea and Polyonchoinea fits the proposed scheme, i.e. monogeneans with unhinged marginal hooks form one old group, the Oligonchoinea, which have 5 + 5 unhinged marginal hooks, and the other group form the Polyonchoinea, which (with the exception of the Hexabothriidae) has a greater number (7 + 7, 8 + 8 or 9 + 9) of unhinged marginal hooks. It is proposed that both these names, Oligonchoinea (sensu mihi) and Polyonchoinea (sensu mihi), will be retained on one side and Articulonchoinea placed on the other side, which reflects the early monogenean evolution. Except for the members of Ananchorea [Polyonchoinea], all members of the Oligonchoinea and Polyonchoinea have anchors, which imply that they are further evolved, i.e. have passed the 5 + 5 marginal hook evolutionary capacity level (Malmberg, 1986). There are two main types of anchors in the Monogenea: haptoral anchors, with anlages appearing in the haptor, and peduncular anchors, with anlages in the peduncle. There are two types of haptoral anchors: peripheral haptoral anchors, ontogenetically the oldest, and central haptoral anchors. Peduncular anchors, in turn, are ontogenetically younger than peripheral haptoral anchors. There may be two pairs of peduncular anchors: medial peduncular anchors, ontogentically the oldest, and lateral peduncular anchors. Only peduncular (not haptoral) anchors have anchor bars. Monogeneans with haptoral anchors are here called Mediohaptanchorea n. superord. and Laterohaptanchorea n. superord. or haptanchoreans. All oligonchoineans and the oldest polyonchoineans are haptanchoreans. Certain members of Calceostomatidae [Polyonchoinea] are the only monogeneans with both (peripheral) haptoral and peduncular anchors (one pair). These monogeneans are here called Mixanchorea n. superord. Polyonchoineans with peduncular anchors and unhinged marginal hooks are here called the Pedunculanchorea n. superord. The most primitive pedunculanchoreans have only one pair of peduncular anchors with an anchor bar, while the most advanced have both medial and lateral peduncular anchors; each pair having an anchor bar. Certain families of the Articulonchoinea, the Anchorea n. superord., also have peduncular anchors (parallel evolution): only one family, the Sundanonchidae n. fam., has both medial and lateral peduncular anchors, each anchor pair with an anchor bar. Evolutionary lines from different monogenean evolutionary capacity levels are discussed and a new system of classification for the Monogenea is proposed.In agreeing to publish this article, I recognise that its contents are controversial and contrary to generally accepted views on monogenean systematics and evolution. I have anticipated a reaction to the article by inviting senior workers in the field to comment upon it: their views will be reported in a future issue of this journal. EditorIn agreeing to publish this article, I recognise that its contents are controversial and contrary to generally accepted views on monogenean systematics and evolution. I have anticipated a reaction to the article by inviting senior workers in the field to comment upon it: their views will be reported in a future issue of this journal. Editor     

Interrelationship of the mediator receptors in the terminals of the afferent nerves of the cornea of the eye]

In local application of substances with a mediator action (adrenaline, acetylcholine, histamine) and blockers of specific receptors (dihydroergotoxin, inderal, atropine and of subcutaneous dimedrol) together with dicaine it was possible to reveal a distinct presence in the cornea of the eye of the mediator receptors capable of influencing one another. Pharmacological analysis permitted a supposition to be made that there were two receptor systems in the sensory nerve endings of the cornea; these systems were in reciprocal inhibitory relations; due to this their regular influence on the processes of excitation and inhibition is effected in the sensory nerve ending.     

Characteristics of the membranes of the pellicle of the ciliatePseudomicrothorax dubius

Summary The membranes of the pellicle of the ciliatePseudomicrothorax dubius are investigated using thin section electron microscopy and freeze-fracture replicas. The plasma membrane is covered by a surface coat and is connected to the outer alveolar membrane by short, sometimes branched, bridges. The inner alveolar membrane is coated on both sides. The epiplasm lies in intimate contact with the cytoplasmic surface of this membrane, and there is a corresponding deposit on the other surface. This deposit is regularly striated.The epiplasmic layer and the alveoli are interrupted at sites of cytotic activity,e.g., the attachment sites of trichocysts, the cytoproct, and the parasomal sacs. The striated deposit ends where the epiplasm ends, indicating a direct relationship between these two epimembranous layers.There is a deposit along the sides of the first part of the tip of the trichocysts, and in this region the trichocyst membrane is free of intramembranous particles.The membrane of the parasomal sacs has a coat on both surfaces. That on the extraplasmic surface is similar to the surface coat of the plasma membrane. The origin of the cytoplasmic coat is unknown. The cytotic activity of these sacs is indicated by their highly irregular profiles.     

The early development of the tail and the transformation of the shape of the nucleus of the spermatid of the domestic fowl,Gallus gallus

Summary The differentiation of the spermatid, especially in reference to the formation of the flagellum, and transformation of the shape of the nucleus was investigated in the domestic fowl.In the early stage of the spermatid, a prominent Golgi apparatus appears around the centrioles. The Golgi vesicles then surround the axial-filament complex which develops from the distal centriole. These vesicles fuse to form continuous membrane at the earliest stage of flagellar formation, and in the succeeding stage Golgi lamellae are attached to the plasma membrane of the developing flagellum. From these observations, it is assumed that Golgi apparatus may be a source of the membrane system of the flagellum.The microtubules distributed around the nucleus form the circular manchette. The anterior region of the nucleus with the manchette is cylindrical in shape and the posterior region without it remains irregular in shape. When the circular manchette has been completed, the whole nucleus acquires a slender cylindrical shape. The circular manchette then changes into the longitudinal manchette. The nuclei of spermatids without a longitudinal manchette are abnormal in shape. In view of these observations it is assumed that the nuclear shaping of the spermatid may be accomplished by circular manchette and the maintenance of shape of the elongated nucleus by longitudinal manchette.The authors wish to thank Mr. Takayuki Mori for his helpful suggestions and technical advices     

Characteristics of the ovum cleavage and the importance of the preblastula phase in the embryogenesis of the Nematoda

The figure of tetrahedron is formed in certain species of Plectus and in Tobrilus gracilis at the stage of 4 blastomeres rather than a rhombus which is formed in most highly organized nematodes. The analysis of the Nematoda's embryogenesis allows to conclude that tetrahedron, rhombus as well as some other figures play the role of preblastula sustaining the most expedient disposition of the first blastomers for transition to the formation of the blastula. With the increasing organization of nematodas the tetrahedron preblastula turns into a rhombic, linear-rhombic and at last in aphelenchoid-tylenchoid one. The character of the distribution of structural elements of organs and tissues of the definitive animal in the cytoplasm of the egg of Plectus and Tobrilus confirms the rightness of the division of the class of nematodas into subclasses Enoplia and Chromadoria rather than subclasses Adenophorea and Secernentea.     

Features of the structure of the spleen and lymph nodes of the rat after exposure to the secretion of the suprascapular gland of the toad

Zootoxin of the toad suprascapular glands in the dose of 0.5 mg/kg of the body mass (rat) increases mitotic activity of lymphoid cells in B-dependent zones of the lymph nodes and spleen. Simultaneously, mitotic activity of cells in T-dependent zones of the spleen also increases.     

Reflection in the electrical activity of the brain of the activities of the mechanisms regulating the functional state

On the basis of analysis of the results of author's studies and literature data, theoretical notions are developed, according to which spatial-temporal organization of cortical biopotentials is a result of activity of nonspecific different level systems subtly regulating current alertness in conformity with needs of the actual and forthcoming activities. In the hierarchy of regulating systems, in conditions of alertness, nonspecific thalamic and midbrain system is leading. Activity of these regulation levels provides in alertness for formation and destruction of functional neuronal ensembles which realize elementary informational transformations. The role is emphasized of asynchronous processes in the central nervous system activity.     

Self-organization in the determination of the size of the axial structures in the embryogenesis of the clawed toad

Experiments were performed using X. laevis embryos during gastrulation and neurulation (stages 10, 11 1/2, 12 1/2, 13 1/2, 15 and 18). Part of presumptive epidermis and lateral plate mesoderm was removed, and embryos raised until stage 25. The size of axial structures (notochord, somite mesoderm, central nervous system) was determined using serial histological sections and compared with that of control embryos. In experimental embryos, the size of axial structures was decreased. Until a specific stage of development, close correlation was found between the volume of embryonic compartment corresponding to a particular, structure and the volume of presumptive epidermis and lateral plate mesoderm. This stage is individual for each axial organ: middle gastrula (stage 11 1/2) for notochord, late gastrula (stage 12 1/2) for somite mesoderm, and late neurula (stage 18) for central nervous system. This data suggest that differentiation pattern of ecto-mesodermal rudiment is subject to regulation during gastrulation-neurulation, and subdivision of ectoderm and mesoderm into axial and non-axial tissues is a self-organizing process.     

Effect of serotonin on the activity of the neurons involved in the realization of the avoidance reflex of the snail

Bath application of 10(-5) mol/l of serotonin (5-HT) elicited a 50% increase of summary EPSPs recorded in command neurones for avoidance behaviour. No significant changes of rest potential and input resistance were seen in these cells. 5-HT evoked an increase of spontaneous level of firing in motoneurones involved in the same reflex, as well as an increase in the number of spikes which paralleled increase of EPSPs to the same stimulus in command neurones. In sensory cells, presynaptic to the command neurones, application of 5-HT evoked a significant increase of excitability and of input resistance. Monosynaptic EPSPs recorded in the command neurones showed a 40% increase after serotonin application. It is concluded that the major locus of plastic changes evoked by 5-HT application in the neuronal chain underlying avoidance reflex is the synaptic contact between sensory and command neurones.     

Evaluation of the role of the adaptive result in the theory of the functional systems

The fundamental of the theory of the functional systems, i.e., the concept of the useful adaptive result as a universal system-forming factor is considered. It is suggested that the adaptive result is not system-forming in behaviors actualized exclusively due to activity of systems developed earlier. It is argued that positive mutations may serve as the system-forming factor for hereditary determined behavioral forms. In all other cases of goal-directed behavior (except conditioning) the aim of performance as a model of the future result plays the decisive role. Only in conditioning the classical concept of the system-forming role of the adaptive result seems to be undeniable. The refined ideas about the mechanisms of formation of the functional systems may be useful in analysis of a number of animal and human functions (learning, emotional stress, neuroses, etc.).     

Effect of the androgenic status on the phenotype of the plantaris muscle of the rat

1. The early demonstration of specific androgen binding sites in skeletal muscle suggested that androgen might be involved in the homeostasis of the tissue in adult mammals. 2. Following five weeks of androgen withdrawal, a noticeable increase in the plantaris (PLT) myosin heavy chain cleavage occurs. No other alteration of the contractile proteins pattern was detected. 3. No effect on the template activity of major mRNAs associated with the polysomal fraction was observed in GDX or GDX + TP group compared to control rats. 4. As opposed to the PLT muscle, the template activity of polyribosomes isolated from the androgen sensitive levator ani muscle displays a severe alteration following GDX. 5. Force-frequency analysis of PLT indicated however that the MHC modification was of no functional significance.     

Differentiation of the effects of antispasmodic agents on the electromyogram of the sphincter of Oddi and the duodenum of the alert rabbit

The electrical activity of the sphincter of Oddi and gastro-intestinal tract had been recorded on 21 negative atropineesterase conscious rabbits by means of chronically implanted electrodes located in the digestive wall. An analysis of the action of different spasmolytic and analgesic drugs was realized. Electromyograms of the sphincter of Oddi presented (a) isolated or in series spike potentials occurring independently of electrical activities of the duodenum (b) recurring spike potentials correlated with intestine spikes. The independent activity of the sphincter of Oddi was not controlled by the cholinergic system, contrary to the intestine-dependent activity (effect of the fempiverinium, atropine like drug). The pitofenone had inhibited the spike potentials of both the sphincter and intestine because its papaverinic effect. The noramidopyrine, analgesic drug without morphine-like effects, had induced activation and inhibition at low and high posology respectively.     

Spread of bacteria of the genus Acinetobacter in the hydrobios of the Bay of Peter the Great, the Sea of Japan

The analysis of the spread of bacteria of the genus Acinetobacter among the invertebrate animals of the Bay of Peter the Great (the Sea of Japan): in bivalved mollusks, sea cucumbers and sea urchins Acinetobacter bacteria were detected more often than in cushion stars and crustaceous animals. The biological properties of 45 isolated bacteria were studied with the use of a wide variety of tests. The study revealed that 9% of Acinetobacter cultures isolated from marine animals had pronounced beta-hemolysis.     

Electron microscopy of the oxynticopeptic cells of the gastric glands and the intestinal glands of the caecum of the guineapig.

Histomorphology of the gastric and intestinal glands was investigated in 19 sexually mature, adult guineapigs by light and transmission electron microscopy. Gastric glands exhibited the cytological characteristics of oxynticopeptic cells capable of both hydrochloric acid (HCl) and pepsinogen secretion. In the literature, occurrence of oxynticopeptic cells in the proventriculus of the domestic fowl (Toner, 1963; Bell & Freeman, 1971) and in the gastric glands of frogs has been reported (Sedar, 1961; Patt & Patt, 1969; Forte & Forte, 1970). It has been claimed by other investigators (Herriot et al., 1938; Long, 1967) that simultaneous secretion of HCl and pepsinogen by a single, not completely differentiated 'pure' cell type, was highly effective for rapid conversion of the zymogen to active enzyme. Under the light microscope with haematoxylin and eosin stain, the protein secreting activity of gastric glands in guineapigs was masked by the HCl secreting activity, thus morphologically resembling the oxyntic cells. Therefore, different cell types, for example protein-secreting peptic cells and the acid-secreting oxyntic cells, could not be distinguished on the basis of their morphology and staining affinity. For histochemical evaluation of the sections with stains-all method, most cells in the gastric glands responded by a positive reaction to protein. Further, protein containing cells were seen in the intestinal glands of the guineapig caecum. The function of this cell type was correlated with caecotrophic food habits of this species.