囊胚形成的基因表达与调控

囊胚形成是胚胎早期发育过程中一个重要阶段,涉及几个重要的生理事件,即细胞融合（compaction,亦称致密化作用）、囊胚腔出现、囊胚腔扩张及滋养层和内细胞团的分化。在细胞间连接蛋白的作用下,各种细胞间连接方式逐步建立起来,在合子型基因组表达调控下,促进了最终囊胚的形成。细胞间连接蛋白和细胞粘附相关蛋白参与组建各种细胞间连接,参与细胞融合、囊胚腔形成、滋养层分化和囊腔扩张等过程。通过顶部的紧密连接、侧部的缝隙连接和桥粒,建立起细胞的连接复合体。在人胚胎8－细胞之前,卵裂球细胞界限明显,可能从中间连接方式相互作用;8－细胞期发生致密化作用,通过紧密连接将细胞分成顶部和基部,使得胚胎处于半封闭状态,促进胚胎内部积液,形成囊胚腔。细胞融合的同时也产生缝隙连接。桥粒最初出现在人胚胎达到32－细胞阶段,桥粒连接参与囊胚腔形成以及在囊胚扩张时维持滋养层的稳定性。桥粒由一些跨膜粒蛋白组成,包括参与细胞内粘附的桥粒子和桥粒球以及一些细胞质内蛋白（如desmoplakins,plakoglobin,plakophilin),由细胞内蛋白质形成空斑结构并介导细胞角蛋白丝固定。对植入前牛胚胎的研究表明,只有DcII,DcIII和plako三种桥粒蛋白参与桥粒组建。在鼠囊胚中DcII的表达部位位于滋养外胚层,对于滋养层的形成具有重要的作用。在牛中,直到桑椹胚期可能才出现紧密连接方式。人胚胎发育至囊胚期时,可检测到角蛋白－18基因的活跃表达,作为细胞骨架蛋白的角蛋白－18参与桥粒位点的细胞与细胞间“识别”的建立。缝隙连接蛋白连接子（Connexin43,Cx43)对于维持细胞融合以及之后囊胚的形成是十分必要的。细胞融合和囊胚腔形成还需要一些介导细胞粘附和滋养层细胞分化的分子表达,如整合素家族中的E－钙调素、链接子（caknin)和ZQ（一种细胞质带状咬合紧密连接相关蛋白）。Na/K-ATP酶基因及细胞因子、生长因子等可促进Na^ 浓度梯度变化,使水分进入囊胚内部,形成囊胚腔,并维持囊腔腔扩张状态。调节发育和分化的基因参与胚胎的发育和内细胞团和滋养外胚层细胞的分化,调节胚胎由未分化状态向分化状态过渡。另外,某些细胞因子对内细胞团细胞增殖有影响。在小鼠胚胎培养基中,添加IGF和EGF有利于胚胎从透明带孵出,TGF－α和EGF在小鼠胚胎发育中能分别通过自泌作用和旁分泌作用囊胚腔的扩张膨大。许多基因参与囊胚的发育和分化,如Pem基因调节早期胚胎细胞分化,可调节鼠早期胚胎由未分化状态向分化状态过渡,Oct-4表达与未分化表型有关,在早期胚胎发育中起转录调节作用。植入前胚胎发育基因调节鼠胚植入前卵裂速度的快慢,以及胚胎预后生存能力。植入前因子PIF在受精后妇女的血清中就能检测出来,其特点和功能与囊胚形成的关系仍需进一步研究。Rex-1编码锌指蛋白,可能是一个转录调节因子,它参与滋养层发育以及精子发生,它是研究内细胞团早期细胞命运决定的有用标志物,对于维持胚胎干细胞的未分化状态和全能性有作用,当其表达显著降低时,内细胞团将分化成胚层。总之,多种蛋白、因子参与囊胚形成的表达调控。通过基因调控的研究,将有助于培养液的研制以及通过测定一些标志基因的表达筛选健康的胚胎。     

小鼠胚胎致密化起始的调控机制

植入前小鼠胚胎的发育事件包括第一次卵裂、胚胎基因组激活、桑椹胚致密、囊胚形成。小鼠受精卵胚胎的致密化发生在8-细胞阶段晚期, 致密过程中, 胚胎卵裂球本身以及卵裂球之间发生了一系列的变化。这些变化包括卵裂球微绒毛以及胞质成分的极性化分布, 卵裂球之间形成特殊的胞间连接。致密化是哺乳动物胚胎发育过程中的第一个细胞分化事件, 即导致了内细胞团以及滋养外胚层的产生。植入后, 内细胞团将发育成为胚体, 滋养外胚层将发育成为胎盘等胚外组织。细胞粘附分子E-cadherin介导的胞间粘附起始了致密化。卵裂球发生粘附所需的组分在致密前已经存在, 但是直至8-细胞阶段晚期连接复合体才表现出明显的粘附活性。敲除E-cadherin基因, 发现母源性的E-cadherin足以介导致密。E-cadherin介导的胞间粘附是细胞粘附的第一步。文章综述了E-cadherin介导胞间粘附的具体过程以及蛋白激酶C(Protein kinase C, PKC)调控该过程的相关 机制。     

小鼠植入前胚胎致密化与囊胚形成的分子调控

哺乳动物胚胎植入前的发育中致密化和囊胚形成分别标志着第一次、第二次细胞分化（即细胞命运决定）的起始,是胚胎正常发育的必要条件。因此对影响致密化和囊胚形成的蛋白及调节因子的研究尤为重要。本文探讨了与致密化相关的细胞黏附蛋白、连接蛋白、细胞骨架等分子和囊胚形成相关的紧密连接蛋白、钠钾三磷酸腺苷激酶等分子的一系列调控,以及致密化和囊胚形成在细胞命运决定中的重要作用。     

胚胎中囊胚腔在原肠形成中的作用

两栖类卵受精后经过多次卵裂形成囊胚,在它的里面有一较大的腔,称为囊胚腔。腔内为分裂球分泌的液状物质,这种物质在四细胞时就在分裂腔中存在,随卵裂的进行分裂腔不断扩大。到囊胚期时腔内充满了这种蛋白样的液状物质。那么这种囊胚腔除了作为分裂球向内迁移提供一个空间的场所外,腔内的物质究竟有什么作用? 早在3e年代就证明,两栖类胚胎的囊胚液为碱性物质(pH9),这种碱性液体能减低细胞表面的界面张力,使细胞的局部:表面容易产生突起——伪足,认为这就是促使胚孔处内陷的     

桥粒蛋白与离子转运相关通道

桥粒为细胞与细胞之间的一种连接结构,参与细胞间机械应力传导. 在心肌组织中,桥粒与粘着连接及缝隙连接共同构成闰盘,对于维护心肌闰盘结构和功能的完整性具有重要作用. 近年来,越来越多的研究表明,桥粒蛋白基因突变、表达的缺失或功能异常,可引起心肌细胞钠、钾离子通道、缝隙连接蛋白等心肌电活动相关结构的重塑,增加心肌电学异质性,进而促发心律失常. 本文将就桥粒蛋白与离子转运相关通道关系的最新研究进展进行综述.     

金鱼精巢支持细胞间连接和血睾屏障

本文主要采用冷冻断裂-蚀刻方法,同时结合超薄切片和镧标记实验,研究金鱼精巢内的支持细胞间连接特点及血-睾屏障的形成。结果发现:1)金鱼精巢内支持细胞间连接呈紧密连接、桥粒和间隙连接同时存在的形式。2)各种连接的数量、面积、分布密度会随着小囊内生精细胞的发育而改变。3)紧密连接在精子发生过程的各个阶段都存在,但在形态上表现为Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型两种。4)血-睾屏障是在粗线期精母细胞期后形成,它是Ⅰ型紧密连接发育为Ⅱ型紧密连接的结果。     

小鼠受精卵、卵裂球和桑椹胚细胞无SP表型

SP(side population)表型的概念在干细胞研究中用来表示某些细胞具有的将进入细胞的荧光染料如Hoechst 33342排出细胞的特性, 这种表型的形成与ABCG2蛋白有关. 近年研究报告某些干细胞及某些前体细胞具有SP表型, 并提出SP表型可能是干细胞或前体细胞的筛选标志. 在本研究中通过分离了小鼠受精卵、2细胞期及8细胞期卵裂球、桑椹胚和囊胚并直接进行Hoechst 33342染色, 结果发现小鼠受精卵、卵裂球、桑椹胚细胞都不具有SP表型, 但是处于其分化下游的囊胚中的内细胞团细胞却具有明显的SP表型, 而同一囊胚中的滋养层细胞却不具有SP表型. 该结果表明来源于内细胞团的胚胎干细胞具有的SP表型是内在的, 与体外培养条件无关; 另一方面该结果也提示SP表型至少是多能干细胞所具有的独特表型之一, 但并不存在于更早期的全能干细胞. 当在培养液中加入ABCG2蛋白抑制剂后直接导致囊胚中的内细胞团细胞SP表型消失, 提示囊胚内细胞团细胞SP表型的形成与ABCG2蛋白具有密切相关性. 以上结果表明并不是所有的干细胞都具有SP表型, SP表型可能可以作为某些种类的干细胞, 如胚胎干细胞及某些成体组织干细胞的分选标志, 但并不具有普遍性.     

扣带素——调节血管内皮细胞屏障功能的新靶点

正血管内皮细胞间连接最顶端的紧密连接是构成旁细胞屏障的重要结构。紧密连接由跨膜蛋白和胞浆蛋白组成,其中胞浆蛋白作为桥梁连接跨膜蛋白和细胞骨架蛋白,因此在决定紧密连接结构的完整性中发挥了重要的作用。然而目前,关于血管内皮中特异性表达的重要胞浆蛋白的研究仍十分有限。扣带素(cingulin)是1988年发现的一种紧密连接胞浆蛋白,已有研究表明cingulin在上皮细胞中参与调控紧密连接跨膜蛋白的表达以及细胞的增殖能力。然而,cingulin在血管内皮中的作用     

TGF-β1对人正常胎盘滋养层细胞表达E-钙粘素的调节

E-钙粘素是在胚胎发育中最早表达的分子之一,它可以与Catenin家族成员形成钙粘素/Catenin复合物参与多种细胞功能,对于胚胎植入和胎盘发生具有重要作用.通过RT-PCR、免疫组织化学、细胞粘附分析等方法,在人正常妊娠和输卵管妊娠母胎界面上,发现E-钙粘素主要定位于绒毛细胞滋养层细胞和滋养层细胞柱,从滋养层细胞柱近端向远端,其蛋白质水平逐渐降低.正常胎盘组织中E-钙粘素水平在妊娠早期较高,妊娠中期直至分娩期均维持低水平.在体外培养的人正常胎盘细胞滋养层细胞系(NPC细胞)中,转化生长因子β(TGFβ1)显著上调E-钙粘素蛋白和mRNA的表达,并呈现时间和剂量依赖性,同时,TGFβ1促进NPC细胞之间的粘附.上述结果表明,胎盘中存在E-钙粘素的旁分泌调节机制,E-钙粘素可通过调节滋养层细胞粘附而参与细胞侵润的有节制调控.     

溶菌酶1在小鼠超数排卵前后孵化及休眠囊胚中差异表达的研究

目的研究溶菌酶1(lysozyme 1,LYZ1)基因在超数排卵前后小鼠孵化囊胚和休眠胚胎中的分布以及表达,探究动物胚胎着床过程中新的调节机制。方法从妊娠5 d ICR小鼠体内获取的正常孵化囊胚和超排囊胚,利用小鼠延迟着床模型于妊娠第8天获取休眠胚胎和超排休眠胚胎。利用免疫荧光和Western Blot方法检测LYZ1蛋白在四组胚胎中的分布和差异表达变化。结果 LYZ1在超数排卵前、后小鼠孵化囊胚和休眠胚胎中均有表达,且主要集中在内细胞团中,滋养层细胞和胞质中少见分布;与未进行超排的小鼠相比,LYZ1蛋白在超排后小鼠胚胎中表达量显著上调,与未营造休眠模型的小鼠相比,LYZ1蛋白在休眠模型小鼠胚胎中的表达量显著上调。结论 LYZ1蛋白在囊胚内细胞团中表达,可能参与调节胚胎内细胞团的发育;LYZ1蛋白在超排-休眠胚胎中的高表达,说明LYZ1蛋白在休眠和超数排卵的双重影响下,会因为抵御不利环境而上调。     

Molecular maturation of cell adhesion systems during mouse early development

During cleavage, the mouse embryo expresses a variety of cell adhesion systems on its cell surfaces. We have reviewed biogenetic and assembly criteria for the formation of the uvomorulin/catenin, tight junction and desmosome adhesion systems as the trophectoderm differentiates. Each system reveals different mechanisms regulating molecular maturation. Adhesion processes contribute to the generation of distinct tissues in the blastocyst by modifying the expression pattern of blastomeres entering the non-epithelial inner cell mass lineage. Cell adhesion also influences the spatial organisation, but rarely the timing of expression, of proteins involved in trophectoderm differentiation.     

Ability of outside cells from preimplantation mouse embryos to form inner cell mass derivatives

Previous studies have shown that inside cells in the preimplantation mouse embryo do not become committed to the formation of inner cell mass until after blastocyst formation. However, it is not yet clear whether outside cells are also labile late in preimplantation development or whether they become restricted to trophectoderm development at an earlier stage. The present study investigates the potency of outside cells isolated from late morulae just prior to blastocyst formation and shows that some, if not all, outside cells retain the potential to form inner cell mass derivatives in vitro and in vivo. This suggests that trophectoderm cells are not restricted in potential earlier than ICM cells and that all cells of the early embryo may be labile at least until blastulation.     

Cell polarity and cell diversification during early mouse embryogenesis.

At the eight-cell stage of mouse development, the organization of blastomeres changes from radially symmetrical to polarized. This acquisition of cell polarity, followed by asymmetric divisions, leads to the formation of two phenotypically different cell types, which give rise to the first two cell lineages of the mouse blastocyst embryo, trophectoderm and the inner cell mass. Cell fate, controlled by positional information, is not irreversibly fixed during differentiation, providing the embryo with considerable developmental flexibility.     

The cell biology of blastocyst development.

Preimplantation development encompasses the "free"-living period of mammalian embryogenesis, which culminates in the formation of a fluid-filled structure, the blastocyst. Cavitation (blastocyst formation) is accompanied by the expression of a novel set of gene products that contribute directly to the attainment of cell polarity with the trophectoderm, which is both the first epithelium of development and the outer cell layer encircling the inner cell mass of the blastocyst. Several of these gene products have been identified and include the tight junction (ZO-1), Na/K-ATPase (alpha and beta subunits), uvomorulin, gap junction (connexin43), and growth factors such as transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-alpha) and epidermal growth factor (EGF). This review will examine the role(s) of each of these gene products during the onset and progression of blastocyst formation. The trophectodermal tight junctional permeability seal regulates the leakage of blastocoel fluid and also assists in the maintenance of a polarized Na/K-ATPase distribution to the basolateral plasma membrane domain of the mural trophectoderm. The polarized distribution of the Na/K-ATPase plays an integral role in the establishment of a trans-trophectoderm Na+ gradient, which drives the osmotic accumulation of water across the epithelium into the nascent blastocoelic cavity. The cell adhesion provided by uvomorulin is necessary for the establishment of the tight junctional seal, as well as the maintenance of the polarized Na/K-ATPase distribution. Growth factors such as TGF-alpha and EGF stimulate an increase in the rate of blastocoel expansion, which could, in part, be mediated by secondary messengers that result in an increase in Na/K-ATPase activity. Insight into the mechanism of cavitation has, therefore, directly linked blastocyst formation to trophectoderm cell differentiation, which arises through fundamental cell biological processes that are directly involved in the attainment of epithelial cell polarity.     

Maintenance of the inner cell mass in human blastocysts from fragmented embryos

The degree of fragmentation during early cleavage is universally used as an indicator of embryo quality during human in vitro fertilization treatment. Extensive fragmentation has been associated with reduced blastocyst formation and implantation. We examined the relationship between early fragmentation and subsequent allocation of cells to the trophectoderm and inner cell mass in the human blastocyst. We retrospectively analyzed data from 363 monospermic human embryos that exhibited varying degrees of fragmentation on Day 2. Embryos were cultured from Day 2 to Day 6 in Earle balanced salt solution with 1 mM glucose and human serum albumin. Rates of development and blastocyst formation were measured. The number of cells in the trophectoderm and inner cell mass and the incidence of apoptosis were assessed following differential labeling with polynucleotide-specific fluorochromes. Increasing fragmentation resulted in reduced blastocyst formation and lower blastocyst cell numbers. For minimal and moderate levels of fragmentation, the reduction in cell numbers was confined largely to the trophectoderm and a steady number of inner cell mass cells was maintained. However, with extensive fragmentation of more than 25%, cell numbers in both lineages were reduced in the few embryos that formed blastocysts. Apoptotic nuclei were present in both the trophectoderm and inner cell mass, with the lowest incidence in blastocysts that had developed from embryos with minor (5-10%) fragmentation. Paradoxically, higher levels of apoptosis were seen in embryos of excellent morphology, suggesting a possible role in regulation of cell number.     

Specific PKC isoforms regulate blastocoel formation during mouse preimplantation development

During early mammalian development, blastocyst morphogenesis is achieved by epithelial differentiation of trophectoderm (TE) and its segregation from the inner cell mass (ICM). Two major interrelated features of TE differentiation required for blastocoel formation include intercellular junction biogenesis and a directed ion transport system, mediated by Na+/K+ ATPase. We have examined the relative contribution of intercellular signalling mediated by protein kinase C (PKC) and gap junctional communication in TE differentiation and blastocyst cavitation. The distribution pattern of four (delta, theta, iota/lambda, zeta) PKC isoforms and PKCmicro/PKD1 showed partial colocalisation with the tight junction marker ZO-1alpha+ in TE and all four PKCs (delta, theta, iota/lambda, zeta) showed distinct TE/ICM staining patterns (predominantly at the cell membrane within the TE and cytoplasmic within the ICM), indicating their potential contribution to TE differentiation and blastocyst morphogenesis. Specific inhibition of PKCdelta and zeta activity significantly delayed blastocyst formation. Although modulation of these PKC isoforms failed to influence the already established programme of epithelial junctional differentiation within the TE, Na+/K+ ATPase alpha1 subunit was internalised from membrane to cytoplasm. Inhibition of gap junctional communication, in contrast, had no influence on any of these processes. Our results demonstrate for the first time that distinct PKC isotypes contribute to the regulation of cavitation in preimplantation embryos via target proteins including Na+/K+ ATPase.