Poplar vulnerability to xylem cavitation acclimates to drier soil conditions

Xylem vulnerability to cavitation differs between tree species according to their drought resistance, more xerophilous species being more resistant to xylem cavitation. Variability in xylem vulnerability to cavitation is also found within species, especially between in situ populations. The origin of this variability has not been clearly identified. Here we analyzed the response of xylem hydraulic traits of Populus tremula×Populus alba trees to three different soil water regimes. Stem xylem vulnerability was scored as the xylem water potential causing 12, 50 and 88% loss of conductivity (P₁₂, P₅₀ and P₈₈). Vulnerability to cavitation was found to acclimate to growing conditions under different levels of soil water content, with P₅₀ values of ?1.82, ?2.03 and ?2.45 MPa in well‐watered, moderately water‐stressed and severely water‐stressed poplars, respectively. The value of P₁₂, the xylem tension at which cavitation begins, was correlated with the lowest value of midday leaf water potential (ψm) experienced by each plant, the difference between the two parameters being approximately 0.5 MPa, consistent with the absence of any difference in embolism level between the different water treatments. These results support the hypothesis that vulnerability to cavitation is a critical trait for resistance to drought. The decrease in vulnerability to cavitation under growing conditions of soil drought was correlated with decreased vessel diameter, increased vessel wall thickness and a stronger bordered pit field (t/b)². The links between these parameters are discussed.     

沙柳和柠条茎水力学特性对模拟降雨改变的响应

利用模拟降雨控制试验(对照、降雨增加45%和减少50%),研究了黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错带典型灌木沙柳和柠条茎水力学特性对模拟降雨改变的响应,以揭示两种灌木对未来降雨改变的适应性.结果表明: 沙柳茎比导水率(K_s)、比叶导水率(K_l)和Huber值对增水有显著响应,而对干旱无显著响应;柠条黎明前和正午叶水势、水分传输效率(K_s及K_l)对干旱有显著响应,但对增水无响应.两种灌木不同处理间抵抗栓塞能力无显著差异,沙柳不同处理间正午原位栓塞程度亦无显著差异,而柠条干旱处理正午原位栓塞程度显著增大.沙柳增水处理导管直径和导管面积占边材面积的比例显著增加,干旱导致沙柳导管密度显著增大,水力直径变小;柠条增水处理的木质部结构无明显改变,干旱导致其导管密度和木材密度显著增加.说明增水提升了沙柳的水力功能,而长期干旱显著降低了柠条水力功能,预测在未来气候旱化条件下,柠条的水力适应性可能不如沙柳.     

Nutrient availability constrains the hydraulic architecture and water relations of savannah trees

Leaf and whole plant-level functional traits were studied in five dominant woody savannah species from Central Brazil (Cerrado) to determine whether reduction of nutrient limitations in oligotrophic Cerrado soils affects carbon allocation, water relations and hydraulic architecture. Four treatments were used: control, N additions, P additions and N plus P additions. Fertilizers were applied twice yearly, from October 1998 to March 2004. Sixty-three months after the first nutrient addition, the total leaf area increment was significantly greater across all species in the N- and the N + P-fertilized plots than in the control and in the P-fertilized plots. Nitrogen fertilization significantly altered several components of hydraulic architecture: specific conductivity of terminal stems increased with N additions, whereas leaf-specific conductivity and wood density decreased in most cases. Average daily sap flow per individual was consistently higher with N and N + P additions compared to the control, but its relative increase was not as great as that of leaf area. Long-term additions of N and N + P caused midday PsiL to decline significantly by a mean of 0.6 MPa across all species because N-induced relative reductions in soil-to-leaf hydraulic conductance were greater than those of stomatal conductance and transpiration on a leaf area basis. Phosphorus-fertilized trees did not exhibit significant changes in midday PsiL. Analysis of xylem vulnerability curves indicated that N-fertilized trees were significantly less vulnerable to embolism than trees in control and P-fertilized plots. Thus, N-induced decreases in midday PsiL appeared to be almost entirely compensated by increases in resistance to embolism. Leaf tissue water relations characteristics also changed as a result of N-induced declines in minimum PsiL: osmotic potential at full turgor decreased and symplastic solute content on a dry matter basis increased linearly with declining midday PsiL across species and treatments. Despite being adapted to chronic nutrient limitations, Cerrado woody species apparently have the capacity to exploit increases in nutrient availability by allocating resources to maximize carbon gain and enhance growth. The cost of increased allocation to leaf area relative to water transport capacity involved increased total water loss per plant and a decrease in minimum leaf water potentials. However, the risk of increased embolism and turgor loss was relatively low as xylem vulnerability to embolism and leaf osmotic characteristics changed in parallel with changes in plant water status induced by N fertilization.     

Hydraulic properties of rice and the response of gas exchange to water stress

We investigated the role of xylem cavitation, plant hydraulic conductance, and root pressure in the response of rice (Oryza sativa) gas exchange to water stress. In the field (Philippines), the percentage loss of xylem conductivity (PLC) from cavitation exceeded 60% in leaves even in watered controls. The PLC versus leaf water potential relationship indicated diurnal refilling of cavitated xylem. The leaf water potential causing 50 PLC (P(50)) was -1.6 MPa and did not differ between upland versus lowland rice varieties. Greenhouse-grown varieties (Utah) were more resistant to cavitation with a 50 PLC of -1.9 MPa but also showed no difference between varieties. Six-day droughts caused concomitant reductions in leaf-specific photosynthetic rate, leaf diffusive conductance, and soil-leaf hydraulic conductance that were associated with cavitation-inducing water potentials and the disappearance of nightly root pressure. The return of root pressure after drought was associated with the complete recovery of leaf diffusive conductance, leaf-specific photosynthetic rate, and soil-leaf hydraulic conductance. Root pressure after the 6-d drought (61.2 +/- 8.8 kPa) was stimulated 7-fold compared with well-watered plants before drought (8.5 +/- 3.8 kPa). The results indicate: (a) that xylem cavitation plays a major role in the reduction of plant hydraulic conductance during drought, and (b) that rice can readily reverse cavitation, possibly aided by nocturnal root pressure.     

不同冲洗液对毛白杨和油松枝条水力导度和抵抗空穴化能力测定值的影响

植物通过木质部管道系统进行水分运输, 木质部的水分运输效率和抗空穴化能力等水力结构特征对于植物物种的分布、抗逆能力等方面起关键性作用。目前, 国内外学者一般采用“冲洗法”进行木质部水力结构研究, 然而在该方法中使用的不同冲洗溶质可能对植物木质部水力结构等产生较大影响, 因此该文研究了3种溶质的冲洗溶液对毛白杨(Populus tomentosa)和油松(Pinus tabulaeformis)枝条的水力导度和抵抗空穴化能力的影响。实验结果表明: 相对于去离子水, 用0.01 mol·L^-1的草酸和0.03 mol·L^-1KCl溶液作为冲洗溶液, 均导致毛白杨木质部导管和油松管胞的水力导度测定值的增大。KCl导致毛白杨和油松木质部抵抗空穴化能力测定值的提高, 草酸导致杨树抵抗空穴化能力测定值增强, 但导致油松抗空穴化能力显著(p<0.01)减弱。小枝水平上, 毛白杨和油松的水分运输效率和抗空穴化能力之间没有显著相关性。另外, 在截枝实验中发现, 毛白杨小枝木质部水力导度随长度增加变化不大, 而油松枝条的木质部水力导度有逐渐增大的趋势。以上的实验结果表明不同溶质下毛白杨和油松枝条的木质部水力导度和抵抗空穴化能力不同, 草酸和KCl可能对木质部管道系统及纹孔处的果胶等产生作用, 从而使毛白杨和油松的水力结构发生变化。毛白杨与油松水力结构在去离子水、草酸和KCl的作用下的不同结果及两物种截枝试验下水力导度的不同变化趋势表明, 导管运输系统和管胞运输系统可能具有不同的水分运输影响因素。     

Water transport properties of seven woody species from the semi-arid Mu Us Sandy Land,China

Maintenance of water transport is very important for plant growth and survival. We studied seven woody species that inhabit the semi-arid Mu Us Sandy Land, China, to understand their strategies for maintaining hydraulic function. We evaluated water transport properties, including cavitation resistance, hydraulic recovery, and water loss regulation by stomatal control, which are associated with xylem structural and leaf physiological traits. We also discussed the water-use characteristics of these species by comparing them with those of species in other regions. Species with tracheids had higher levels of xylem resistance to cavitation and a smaller midday transpiration rate than the other species studied. Although species with vessels were less resistant to cavitation, some recovered hydraulic conductivity within 12 h of rehydration. Species with xylem tracheids could maintain their hydraulic function through resistance to cavitation and by relaxing xylem tension. Although species with vessels had less resistant xylem, they could maintain hydraulic function through hydraulic recovery even when xylem dysfunction occurred. Additionally, the species studied here were less resistant to cavitation than species in semi-arid environments, and equally or less resistant than species in humid environments. Rather than allow hydraulic dysfunction due to drought-induced dehydration, they may develop water absorption systems to avoid or recover quickly from hydraulic dysfunction. Thus, not only stem cavitation resistance to drought but also stem–root coordination should be considered when selecting plants for the revegetation of arid regions.     

伊犁河谷退化野果林中新疆野苹果茎的水力结构

为揭示伊犁河谷退化野果林中新疆野苹果植株个体的死亡机理,对比研究3种长势(Ⅰ级,20%枯枝率;Ⅱ级,40%~60%枯枝率;Ⅲ级,>80%枯枝率)新疆野苹果茎的水力结构特征的差异以及水分运输有效性和安全性及其影响因素。结果表明: 随野果林退化程度的增加,3种长势的新疆野苹果茎的边材比导水率和叶比导水率呈下降趋势,但差异不显著;傍晚时的栓塞程度、栓塞脆弱性呈显著增加的趋势,其中Ⅰ、Ⅱ和Ⅲ级长势个体的导水率损失50%时木质部水势分别为-1.87、-1.35和-0.53 MPa;黎明前和正午叶水势、水力安全边际均为Ⅰ级>Ⅱ级>Ⅲ级;与水力学相关的木质部解剖结构以及枝叶性状在3种长势个体之间存在显著差异。相关性分析表明,新疆野苹果茎木质部水分运输的有效性和安全性之间存在弱的权衡关系。新疆野苹果茎的水力结构变化伴随着新疆野果林的衰退过程。野果林的退化会加剧新疆野苹果木质部导管的栓塞化程度,降低其抵抗空穴化栓塞的能力,新疆野苹果面临水力失衡的威胁更大。     

Hydraulic failure and tree dieback are associated with high wood density in a temperate forest under extreme drought

Catastrophic hydraulic failure will likely be an important mechanism contributing to large‐scale tree dieback caused by increased frequency and intensity of droughts under global climate change. To compare the susceptibility of 22 temperate deciduous tree and shrub species to hydraulic failure during a record drought in the southeastern USA, we quantified leaf desiccation, native embolism, wood density, stomatal conductance and predawn and midday leaf water potential at four sites with varying drought intensities. At the two driest sites, there was widespread leaf wilting and desiccation, and most species exhibited predawn leaf water potentials of ≤3 MPa and >60% loss of xylem conductivity in branches. Although species with high wood density were more resistant to cavitation, they had higher levels of native embolism and greater canopy dieback than species with low wood density. This unexpected result can be explained by the failure of species with dense wood to avert a decline in water potential to dangerous levels during the drought. Leaf water potential was negatively correlated with wood density, and the relationship was strongest under conditions of severe water deficit. Species with low wood density avoided catastrophic embolism by relying on an avoidance strategy that involves partial drought deciduousness, higher sensitivity of stomata to leaf water potential and perhaps greater rooting depth. These species therefore maintained water potential at levels that ensured a greater margin of safety against embolism. These differences among species may mediate rapid shifts in species composition of temperate forests if droughts intensify due to climate change.     

The effects of acclimation to sunlight on the xylem vulnerability to embolism in Fagus sylvatica L.

We assessed the effects of irradiance received during growth on the vulnerability of Fagus sylvatica L. xylem vessels to water-stress-induced embolism. The measurements were conducted on (1) potted saplings acclimated for 2 years under 100% and 12% incident global radiation and (2) branches collected from sun-exposed and shaded sides of adult trees. Both experiments yielded similar results. Light-acclimated shoots were less vulnerable to embolism. Xylem water potential levels producing 50% loss of hydraulic conductivity were lower in sun-exposed branches and seedlings than in shade-grown ones (–3·0 versus –2·3 MPa on average). The differences in vulnerability were not correlated with differences in xylem hydraulic conductivity nor vessel diameter. Resistance to cavitation was correlated with transpiration rates, midday xylem and leaf water potentials in adult trees. We concluded that vulnerability to cavitation in Fagus sylvatica may acclimate to contrasting ambient light conditions.     

Do xylem fibers affect vessel cavitation resistance?

Possible mechanical and hydraulic costs to increased cavitation resistance were examined among six co-occurring species of chaparral shrubs in southern California. We measured cavitation resistance (xylem pressure at 50% loss of hydraulic conductivity), seasonal low pressure potential (P(min)), xylem conductive efficiency (specific conductivity), mechanical strength of stems (modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture), and xylem density. At the cellular level, we measured vessel and fiber wall thickness and lumen diameter, transverse fiber wall and total lumen area, and estimated vessel implosion resistance using (t/b)(h)(2), where t is the thickness of adjoining vessel walls and b is the vessel lumen diameter. Increased cavitation resistance was correlated with increased mechanical strength (r(2) = 0.74 and 0.76 for modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture, respectively), xylem density (r(2) = 0.88), and P(min) (r(2) = 0.96). In contrast, cavitation resistance and P(min) were not correlated with decreased specific conductivity, suggesting no tradeoff between these traits. At the cellular level, increased cavitation resistance was correlated with increased (t/b)(h)(2) (r(2) = 0.95), increased transverse fiber wall area (r(2) = 0.89), and decreased fiber lumen area (r(2) = 0.76). To our knowledge, the correlation between cavitation resistance and fiber wall area has not been shown previously and suggests a mechanical role for fibers in cavitation resistance. Fiber efficacy in prevention of vessel implosion, defined as inward bending or collapse of vessels, is discussed.     

Soil salinity and drought alter wood density and vulnerability to xylem cavitation of baldcypress (Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.) seedlings

We investigated the role of hydraulic conductivity, wood density, and xylem cavitation in the response of baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) seedlings to increased soil salinity and drought. One-year-old, greenhouse-grown seedlings were irrigated daily with a 100 mM (≈6‰) salt solution or once per week with fresh water (drought). Controls were irrigated daily with fresh water. Gas exchange rates of stressed plants were reduced by approximately 50% (salt) and 70% (drought), resulting in a 50–60% reduction in diameter growth for both treatments. Stem-specific hydraulic conductivity (K_{S native}) of stressed plants was 33% (salt) and 66% (drought) lower than controls and we observed a strong positive correlation between K_{S native} and gas exchange. In addition, we found a strong relationship between CO₂ assimilation rate (A) and the soil-to-leaf hydraulic conductance (k_L). The relationship was identical for all treatments, suggesting that our moderate salt stress (as well as drought) did not affect the photosynthetic biochemistry of leaves, but rather reduced A via stomatal closure. Lower K_{S native} of stressed plants was associated with increased wood density and greater resistance to xylem cavitation. Xylem pressures causing 50% loss of hydraulic conductivity (P₅₀) were ?2.88 ± 0.07 MPa (drought), ?2.50 ± 0.08 MPa (salt) and ?2.01 ± 0.04 MPa (controls). P₅₀s were strongly correlated with wood density (r = ?0.71, P < 0.01) and K_{S native} (r = 0.74, P < 0.01). These findings support the hypothesis that there is a significant trade-off between a plant's cavitation resistance and its hydraulic efficiency. The results of the present study indicate that stressed plants partitioned their biomass in a way that strengthened their xylem and reduced vulnerability to xylem cavitation. Hence, these seedlings could be better suited to be planted in environments with elevated soil salinity. For most parameters (especially P₅₀), drought had an even more pronounced effect than salinity. This is important as nurseries could produce “stress-acclimated” seedlings simply by reducing irrigation amounts and would not have to contaminate the soils in their nursery beds with salt applications.     

Water relations of coastal and estuarine Rhizophora mangle: xylem pressure potential and dynamics of embolism formation and repair

Physiological traits related to water transport were studied in Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove) growing in coastal and estuarine sites in Hawaii. The magnitude of xylem pressure potential (P_x), the vulnerability of xylem to cavitation, the frequency of embolized vessels in situ, and the capacity of R. mangle to repair embolized vessels were evaluated with conventional and recently developed techniques. The osmotic potential of the interstitial soil water (?_sw) surrounding the roots of R. mangle was c. -2.6LJ.52᎒^-3 and -0.4Lj.13᎒^-3 MPa in the coastal and estuarine sites, respectively. Midday covered (non-transpiring) leaf water potentials (O_L) determined with a pressure chamber were 0.6-0.8 MPa more positive than those of exposed, freely-transpiring leaves, and osmotic potential of the xylem sap (?_x) ranged from -0.1 to -0.3 MPa. Consequently, estimated midday values of P_x (calculated by subtracting ?_x from covered O_L) were about 1 MPa more positive than O_L determined on freely transpiring leaves. The differences in O_L between covered and transpiring leaves were linearly related to the transpiration rates. The slope of this relationship was steeper for the coastal site, suggesting that the hydraulic resistance was larger in leaves of coastal R. mangle plants. This was confirmed by both hydraulic conductivity measurements on stem segments and high-pressure flowmeter studies made on excised leafy twigs. Based on two independent criteria, loss of hydraulic conductivity and proportions of gas- and liquid-filled vessels in cryo-scanning electron microscope (cryo-SEM) images, the xylem of R. mangle plants growing at the estuarine site was found to be more vulnerable to cavitation than that of plants growing at the coastal site. However, the cryo-SEM analyses suggested that cavitation occurred more readily in intact plants than in excised branches that were air-dried in the laboratory. Cryo-SEM analyses also revealed that, in both sites, the proportion of gas-filled vessels was 20-30% greater at midday than at dawn or during the late afternoon. Refilling of cavitated vessels thus occurred during the late afternoon when considerable tension was present in neighboring vessels. These results and results from pressure-volume relationships suggest that R. mangle adjusts hydraulic properties of the water-transport system, as well as the leaf osmotic potential, in concert with the environmental growing conditions.     

摘叶造成的碳限制对刺槐碳素分配和水力学特性的影响

以3年生刺槐（Robinia pseudoacacia Linn.）为研究对象,通过对其进行连续3次摘叶造成严重碳限制,检测摘叶后刺槐的生物量分配、叶片形态和不同部位的非结构性碳（NSC）浓度,同时检测其根压和根系导水率、枝条水势和导水率损失值（PLC）及茎的抗栓塞能力,研究摘叶造成的碳限制对刺槐碳素分配和水力学特性的影响。结果显示,摘叶显著降低了刺槐不同部位的生物量,其中细根生物量降低程度最大;摘叶还造成了刺槐不同部位NSC浓度显著降低,茎韧皮部、茎木质部、根韧皮部和根木质部的NSC浓度分别为对照的29.6%、20.2%、10.2%和8.7%,且根部NSC的降低程度显著高于茎;碳限制显著降低了刺槐苗木的根压和根系导水率,增加了枝条凌晨和正午的PLC,降低了其抗栓塞能力。研究结果表明摘叶造成的碳限制改变了刺槐的碳素分配模式,限制了碳素向根的分配,抑制细根的发生,进而限制根的水分吸收能力,加重枝条栓塞程度,同时还会导致枝条抗栓塞能力下降,从而降低植物水分输导的安全性。     

Hydraulic traits are influenced by phylogenetic history in the drought-resistant, invasive genus Juniperus (Cupressaceae)

In the conifer genus Juniperus (Cupressaceae), many species are increasing rapidly in distribution, abundance, and dominance in arid and semiarid regions. To help understand the success of junipers in drier habitats, we studied hydraulic traits associated with their water stress resistance, including vulnerability to xylem cavitation, specific conductivity (K(S)), tracheid diameter, conduit reinforcement, and wood density in stems and roots, as well as specific leaf area (SLA) of 14 species from the United States and the Caribbean. A new phylogeny based on DNA sequences tested the relationships between vulnerability to cavitation and other traits using both traditional cross-species correlations and independent contrast correlations. All species were moderately to highly resistant to water-stress-induced cavitation in both roots and shoots. We found strong phylogenetic support for two clades previously based on leaf margin serration (serrate and smooth). Species in the serrate clade were 34-39% more resistant to xylem cavitation in stems and roots than were species in the smooth clade and had ～35% lower K(S) and 39% lower SLA. Root and stem resistance to cavitation and SLA were all highly conserved traits. A high degree of conservation within clades suggests that hydraulic traits of Juniperus species strongly reflect phylogenetic history. The high resistance to cavitation observed may help explain the survival of junipers during recent extreme droughts in the southwestern United States and their expansion into arid habitats across the western and central United States.     

Unraveling the Effects of Plant Hydraulics on Stomatal Closure during Water Stress in Walnut

The objectives of the study were to identify the relevant hydraulic parameters associated with stomatal regulation during water stress and to test the hypothesis of a stomatal control of xylem embolism in walnut (Juglans regia x nigra) trees. The hydraulic characteristics of the sap pathway were experimentally altered with different methods to alter plant transpiration (Eplant) and stomatal conductance (gs). Potted trees were exposed to a soil water depletion to alter soil water potential (Psisoil), soil resistance (Rsoil), and root hydraulic resistances (Rroot). Soil temperature was changed to alter Rroot alone. Embolism was created in the trunk to increase shoot resistance (Rshoot). Stomata closed in response to these stresses with the effect of maintaining the water pressure in the leaf rachis xylem (P(rachis)) above -1.4 MPa and the leaf water potential (Psileaf) above -1.6 MPa. The same dependence of Eplant and gs on P(rachis) or Psileaf was always observed. This suggested that stomata were not responding to changes in Psisoil, Rsoil, Rroot, or Rshoot per se but rather to their impact on P(rachis) and/or Psileaf. Leaf rachis was the most vulnerable organ, with a threshold P(rachis) for embolism induction of -1.4 MPa. The minimum Psileaf values corresponded to leaf turgor loss point. This suggested that stomata are responding to leaf water status as determined by transpiration rate and plant hydraulics and that P(rachis) might be the physiological parameter regulated by stomatal closure during water stress, which would have the effect of preventing extensive developments of cavitation during water stress.     

The physiological implications of primary xylem organization in two ferns

Xylem structure and function are well described in woody plants, but the implications of xylem organization in less‐derived plants such as ferns are poorly understood. Here, two ferns with contrasting phenology and xylem organization were selected to investigate how xylem dysfunction affects hydraulic conductivity and stomatal conductance (g_s). The drought‐deciduous pioneer species, Pteridium aquilinum, exhibits fronds composed of 25 to 37 highly integrated vascular bundles with many connections, high g_s and moderate cavitation resistance (P₅₀ = ?2.23 MPa). By contrast, the evergreen Woodwardia fimbriata exhibits sectored fronds with 3 to 5 vascular bundles and infrequent connections, low g_s and high resistance to cavitation (P₅₀ = ?5.21 MPa). Xylem‐specific conductivity was significantly higher in P. aqulinium in part due to its wide, efficient conduits that supply its rapidly transpiring pinnae. These trade‐offs imply that the contrasting xylem organization of these ferns mirrors their divergent life history strategies. Greater hydraulic connectivity and g_s promote rapid seasonal growth, but come with the risk of increased vulnerability to cavitation in P. aquilinum, while the conservative xylem organization of W. fimbriata leads to slower growth but greater drought tolerance and frond longevity.     

Transport constraints on water use by the Great Basin shrub, Artemisia tridentata

As soil and plant water status decline, decreases in hydraulic conductance can limit a plant's ability to maintain gas exchange. We investigated hydraulic limitations for Artemisia tridentata during summer drought. Water use was quantified by measurements of soil and plant water potential ( Ψ ), transpiration and leaf area. Hydraulic transport capacity was quantified by vulnerability to water stress-induced cavitation for root and stem xylem, and moisture release characteristics for soil. These data were used to predict the maximum possible steady-state transpiration rate ( E _crit) and minimum leaf xylem pressure ( Ψ _crit). Transpiration and leaf area declined by ~ 80 and 50%, respectively, as soil Ψ decreased to –2·6 MPa during drought. Leaf-specific hydraulic conductance also decreased by 70%, with most of the decline predicted in the rhizosphere and root system. Root conductance was projected to be the most limiting, decreasing to zero to cause hydraulic failure if E _crit was exceeded. The basis for this prediction was that roots were more vulnerable to xylem cavitation than stems (99% cavitation at –4·0 versus –7·8 MPa, respectively). The decline in water use during drought was necessary to maintain E and Ψ within the limits defined by E _crit and Ψ _crit.     

Water stress tolerance of shrubs in Mediterranean-type climate regions: Convergence of fynbos and succulent karoo communities with California shrub communities

Mediterranean-type climate regions are highly biodiverse and predicted to be particularly sensitive to climate change. Shrubs of the mediterranean-type climate region of South Africa are highly threatened, and their response to water stress has been comparatively little studied. Resistance to water stress induced xylem cavitation (P(50)) and xylem specific hydraulic conductivity (K(s)) were measured in 15 shrub species from fynbos and succulent karoo communities of South Africa. Species displayed a fivefold variation in cavitation resistance (P(50) of -1.9 to -10.3 MPa) with succulent karoo species displaying greater interspecific variability in P(50) than fynbos species. Principal components analysis (including P(50), minimum seasonal water potential, K(s), and xylem density) showed the response to water stress in fynbos species to be similar to chaparral species from the mediterranean-type climate region of California. The data suggest convergence of community and species-specific water stress "strategies" between these mediterranean-type climate regions with respect to their xylem traits. On the basis of the current study and reported plant death and dieback in these regions, woody species within the fynbos may be more susceptible to climate warming and drying than those within the succulent karoo that appear to be utilizing more diverse xylem strategies in response to water stress.     

Does acclimation in cavitation resistance due to mechanical perturbation support the pit area or conduit reinforcement hypotheses in Phaseolus vulgaris?

Two Phaseolus vulgaris L. cultivars were exposed to reduced water and stem mechanical perturbation treatments (flexing) to determine if acclimation to these treatments induced hydraulic changes, altered cavitation resistance and changed stem mechanical properties. Additionally, this study sought to determine if changes in cavitation resistance would support the pit area or conduit reinforcement hypotheses. Flexing reduced biomass, leaf area, xylem vessel area and hydraulic conductivity. One cultivar had greater measures of stem strength and cavitation resistance. Flexing increased cavitation resistance (P₅₀) but did not increase Young's modulus, rigidity or flexural strength on dried stems. Stem rigidity and basal diameter were correlated with leaf mass. The ratio of conduit wall thickness to span [(t/b)_h²] increased under high water and flexing treatments while rigidity decreased for one cultivar exposed to both flexing and lower water suggesting an inability to compensate for two simultaneous stresses. Although P₅₀ was not correlated with measures of mechanical strength, P₅₀ was correlated with vessel diameter, consistent with the pit area hypothesis. This study confirmed that mechanical perturbation can impact xylem structural properties and result in altered plant water flow characteristics and cavitation resistance. Long‐term hydraulic acclimation in these herbaceous annuals was constrained by similar tradeoffs that constrain hydraulic properties across species.