Hawaiian craniofacial morphometrics: Average Mokapuan skull,artificial cranial deformation,and the “rocker” mandible

Craniofacial morphology and cultural cranial deformation were analyzed by the computer morphometric system in 79 adult Hawaiian skulls from Mokapu, Oahu. The average Hawaiian male was large, but similar in shape to the female. Both were larger than the present Caucasian, showed a greater dental protrusion, and possessed a larger ANB angle, flatter cranial base, and larger facial heights. Correlations in Hawaiian craniofacial structure were found between an increasing mandibular plane angle and (1) shorter posterior facial height, (2) larger gonial angle, (3) larger cranial base angle, and (4) smaller SNA and SNB angles. Of the 79 skulls studied, 8. 9% were found to have severe head molding or intentional cranial deformation. Significant statistical differences between the molded group and the nonmolded group are, in decreasing significance: (1) larger upper face height, (2) smaller glabella to occiput distance, and (3) increased lower face height with deformation. The morphometric differences were readily seen by graphic comparison between groups. It is postulated that external forces to the neurocranium result in redirection of the growth vectors in the neurocranial functional matrix, including the cranial base, and secondarily, to the orofacial functional matrix. There is a possibility that the cranial deformation is a retention of the normal birth molding changes. The Polynesian “rocker jaw” was found in 81% to 95% of this populace. This mandibular form occurs only with attainment of adult stature and craniofacial form. This data agrees with the hypothesis that mandibular form is modified by the physical forces present and their direction in the orofacial functional matrix.     

Intentional cranial vault deformation and induced changes of the cranial base and face

Three morphologically distinct populations of Peruvian crania (n = 130) were metrically analysed to quantify changes resulting from intentional artificial vault deformation. Two of these samples are artificially deformed (anteroposterior [AP] and circumferential [C] types). Measurements taken from lateral radiographs demonstrated that alternative forms of the cranial base angle (N-S-Ba, planum angle, planum sphenoidale to plane of the clivus and PANG angle, planum sphenoidale to basion-sella plane) and the orbital and OANG angles (orbital roof to plane of the clivus and basion-sella plane, respectively) of both deformed groups increased while the angle S-Ba-O decreased significantly with respect to the undeformed (N) sample. Changes in the AP group are largely due to anteroinferior displacement of the basion-sella plane. Similar changes in group C are amplified by this group's posterosuperior frontal migration. This migration results in a relatively shallow orbit at the orbital plate/frontal squama interface. Unlike the deformation experienced by the external vault plates, the basion-sella plane orientation remains stable with respect to the Frankfort Horizontal. Additionally, nasal region measurements such as maximum nasal aperture breadth and nasal height were largely stable between each deformed group and the undeformed group. However, facial (bimaxillary and bizygomatic), basicranial, cranial, and frontal breadths decreased significantly from group AP to group N to group C. Thus, gross morphological facial changes between each undeformed group and the control group are largely accounted for by dimensional changes in peripheral structures. These results stress the importance of the dynamic interrelationship between the cranial vault and base in the development of the craniofacial complex.     

Craniocervical morphology and posture in Australian aboriginals

The length of the spinal column as a percentage of stature is smaller in the Australian aboriginal than in most other ethnic groups (Abbie, 1957). It is conceivable that relative lengths of the cervical column might influence population differences in craniocervical posture and craniofacial morphology. The present study aimed to elucidate this relationship by comparing head posture and craniofacial morphology in Australian aboriginals to the same features in a previously studied sample of 120 Danish students (Solow and Tallgren, 1976). The aboriginal sample consisted of 42 young male adults from the Yuendumu settlement, Northern Territory, Australia. Cephalometric films of the natural head position were taken during a field trip to the settlement. The comparison comprised 18 postural and 61 morphological variables. In the aboriginals, the cervical column was shorter and had a less pronounced lordosis. The head was held about 3° lower, and the upper cervical column was 81/2° more forward inclined. As a consequence, the craniocervical angle was about 6° larger. Comparison of the craniofacial morphology in the two groups showed in the aboriginals a shorter upper facial height, a larger anterior lower facial height, and a larger vertical jaw relationship (NL/ML). The length of the posterior cranial base, s-ba, was 4 mm shorter (P <0.001) in the aboriginals, possibly developmentally related to the generally shorter spinal column in Australian aboriginals.     

The influence of incompetent lip seal on the growth and development of craniofacial complex

Abnormal orofacial functions in the period of growth and development can cause morphological anomalies of the craniofacial complex. The aim of this study was to determine the correlation between open mouth posture and morphology of craniofacial complex. The shape, size and relationships of skeletal parts of craniofacial complex were determined by analysis of lateral cephalograms in the sample of 84 children--45 girls and 39 boys (aged 8.96 +/- 0.66 years). The sample was divided into two groups--lip competence and lip incompetence group. Differences in cephalometric values between observed groups were found. The values of inclination of lower central incisors (angle ILi/NB), interbasal angle (NL/NSL), angle between occlusal and mandibular plane and anterior lower facial height were significantly higher in the group with open mouth posture. It can be concluded that lip incompetence plays an important role in growth and development of craniofacial complex.     

中国14个特殊旁系族群的头面部特征比较

头面部特征是人类学各人种进行分类的重要依据,在人类学的研究中被用作亲缘关系的证据。2006-2016年在四川、云南、西藏、贵州、海南、新疆、内蒙古共调查14个族群成人2989人（男性1434人,女性1555人）的16项头面部指标,比较这些族群头面部特征差异。研究结果如下：1）在男性族群中木雅人、尔苏人、临高人、白马人的面宽、头宽均较大。图瓦人、布里亚特人、摩梭人的面宽、头宽、形态面高、鼻高值均较大。僜人、革家人、莽人的面宽、头宽较小,而形态面高、鼻高值较大。空格人的面宽、头宽、形态面高、鼻高值均较小。2）在女性族群中图瓦人、布里亚特人的头宽、面宽、鼻高、耳上头高均较大。革家人、空格人的头宽、面宽、鼻高、耳上头高均较小。木雅人、尔苏人、八甲人、白马人、夏尔巴人的头宽、面宽较大,鼻高、耳上头高较小。僜人、克木人、莽人的头宽、面宽较小,而鼻高、耳上头高较大。3）头宽、容貌耳长跟纬度、年平均气温、年降雨量等环境因子相关性较高。4）通过聚类分析和主成分分析木雅人、尔苏人、白马人与羌族头面部特征比较接近。克木人与佤族头面部特征最为接近。革家人、僜人、莽人头面部特征比较接近。图瓦人、布里亚特人头面部特征与蒙古族比较接近。     

Head posture and craniofacial morphology

The associations between craniofacial morphology and the posture of the head and the cervical column were examined in a sample of 120 Danish male students aged 22–30 years. Two head positions were recorded on lateral cephalometric radiographs, one determined by the subject's own feeling of a natural head balance (self balance position), and the other by the subject looking straight into a mirror (mirror position). Craniofacial morphology was described by 42 linear and angular variables, and postural relationships by 18 angular variables. A comprehensive set of correlations was found between craniofacial morphology and head posture. The correlations were similar for both head positions investigated. Of the postural variables, the position of the head in relation to the cervical column showed the largest set of correlations with craniofacial morphology. Extension of the head in relation to the cervical column was found in connection with large anterior and small posterior facial heights, small antero-posterior craniofacial dimensions, large inclination of the mandible to the anterior cranial base and to the nasal plane, facial retrognathism, a large cranial base angle, and a small nasopharyngeal space. The possible role of functional factors in mediating the relationship between morphology and posture was discussed.     

Common features of sexual dimorphism in the cranial airways of different human populations

Sexual dimorphism in the human craniofacial system is an important feature of intraspecific variation in recent and fossil humans. Although several studies have reported different morphological patterns of sexual dimorphism in different populations, this study searches for common morphological aspects related to functional anatomy of the respiratory apparatus. 3D geometric morphometrics were used to test the hypothesis that due to higher daily energy expenditure and associated greater respiratory air consumption as well as differences in body composition, males should have absolutely and relatively greater air passages in the bony cranial airways than females. We measured 25 3D landmarks in five populations (N = 212) of adult humans from different geographic regions. Male average cranial airways were larger in centroid sizes than female ones. Males tended to show relatively taller piriform apertures and, more consistently, relatively taller internal nasal cavities and choanae than females. Multivariate regressions and residual analysis further indicated that after standardizing to the same size, males still show relatively larger airway passages than females. Because the dimensions of the choanae are limiting factors for air transmission towards the noncranial part of the respiratory system, the identified sex-specific differences in cranial airways, possibly shared among human populations, may be linked with sex-specific differences in body size, composition, and energetics. These findings may be important to understanding trends in hominin facial evolution.     

郑州孙庄遗址仰韶文化居民的颅骨形态

孙庄遗址位于河南省郑州市中原区孙庄村南,是分布在黄河中下游地区的一处仰韶文化晚期遗存。通过对遗址出土的10例保存基本完整的颅骨进行测量与观察后,得出以下结论：孙庄组的颅面部特征为高颅型与狭颅型相结合的颅型特点、中等偏大的面部扁平度、狭额型、中鼻型、低眶型、中面角属平颌型、犬齿窝和鼻根凹欠发达、颅顶缝简单等。孙庄组古代居民颅骨的形态特征归属于亚洲蒙古人种范围。颅骨形态学特征分析结果显示,孙庄组与亚洲蒙古人种近代华南组（R=1.26）关系最为密切,与近代蒙古组（R=1.80）和通古斯组（R=2.06）关系疏远;在与各新石器时代组的对比中,孙庄男性组与仰韶合并组（R=1.00）、庙子沟组（R=1.00）、西山组（R=1.07）、大汶口组（R=1.13）关系接近,孙庄女性组最接近于大汶口组（D_ij=3.10）、徐堡组（D_ij=4.58）和西山组（D_ij=4.60）。综上,我们可知分布在黄河中下游地区的仰韶时代中晚期人群在颅面部特征上颇为一致,具有较高的同源性,应同属于“古中原类型”居民。     

Relationships between growth at the sutures of the rabbit calvarium

The present study was designed to elucidate the relationships between growth increments at the cranial vault sutures in rabbits. Thirteen male New Zealand white rabbits were followed regularly from age 31 to 142 days using a roentgen stereophotogrammetric system. Spherical tantalum markers were implanted into the nasal, frontal, and parietal bones, and implant stability was checked at each stereo examination. Problems with instability were encountered only in the nasal bones. Registered growth rates conformed to our previous investigations. High correlations were observed between the following areas; the coronal suture to the frontonasal suture, the first principal component of the neurocranial suture group to the frontonasal suture, and the principal component of the craniofacial suture group to the coronal suture. Remaining relationships demonstrated dispersion to various extents. The findings indicate that there seems to exist a basic mutual dependence between neural and facial skeletal growth, as well as complex covariations between the various sutures of the rabbit calvarium.     

青海撒拉族侧面部几何形态测量分析

采用基于标志点的几何形态学测量方法对青海循化撒拉族自治县的撒拉族男性82人侧面轮廓形状进行了分析。撒拉族人群额部的变异主要体现在第7、8特征点区域(鼻凹点之上区域),额部其他区域的形态变异较小,而鼻区、嘴唇及下巴区域的形态变异较大,这些特征与土族较相似。同时,撒拉族也显示出明显区别于土族、藏族的形态。如撒拉族额部比较突出,显得前倾,额部相对较长,唇部相对土族较回缩。撒拉族额部特征点集的面积较大,可能反映了撒拉族额部的变异大于土族、藏族。聚类分析显示,男性两类侧面轮廓的差异主要集中在额部,与土族的类别间差异有相似之处。异速生长分析显示,尺寸大小能够解释形状变异的5.51%,随着CS值的增大,额部和下巴部变化明显,额度由陡直趋向于变得平缓,下巴部也随CS值的增大由较突出变为明显回缩。土族、藏族也是随着CS值的增大,额部由陡直趋向于变得平缓,下巴部由较突出变为明显回缩,似乎提示撒拉族、土族、藏族有相似的面部形态变化规律:长面型者的额部较低平,下巴部较回缩。     

Family resemblance for components of craniofacial size and shape

Path analysis is used to analyze family resemblance for eight principal components extracted from 30 anthropometric measurements of the craniofacial complex. Based on likelihood ratio tests, the null hypothesis of no assortative mating is rejected for the nasal height component. The null hypothesis of no common sibling environmental effect is rejected for the cranial size, craniofacial breadth, and nasal height components. Finally, the hypothesis that transmission from both mother and father is equal to 1/2, consistent with simple autosomal polygenic inheritance, is rejected for components corresponding to craniofacial breadth and upper facial height, thus implicating some effect of familial environment. Transmissibility is higher for components related to cranial size and facial height than for those related to facial breadth or ear dimensions.     

Cranial airways and the integration between the inner and outer facial skeleton in humans

The cranial airways are in the center of the human face. Therefore variation in the size and shape of these central craniofacial structures could have important consequences for the surrounding midfacial morphology during development and evolution. Yet such interactions are unclear because one school of thought, based on experimental and developmental evidence, suggests a relative independence (modularity) of these two facial compartments, whereas another one assumes tight morphological integration. This study uses geometric morphometrics of modern humans (N = 263) and 40 three‐dimensional‐landmarks of the skeletal nasopharynx and nasal cavity and outer midfacial skeleton to analyze these questions in terms of modularity. The sizes of all facial compartments were all strongly correlated. Shape integration was high between the cranial airways and the outer midfacial skeleton and between the latter and the anterior airway openings (skeletal regions close to and including piriform aperture). However, no shape integration was detected between outer midface and posterior airway openings (nasopharynx and choanae). Similarly, no integration was detected between posterior and anterior airway openings. This may reflect functional modularization of nasal cavity compartments related to respiratory physiology and differential developmental interactions with the face. Airway size likely relates to the energetics of the organism, whereas airways shape might be more indicative of respiratory physiology and climate. Although this hypothesis should be addressed in future steps, here we suggest that selection on morphofunctional characteristics of the cranial airways could have cascading effects for the variation, development, and evolution of the human face. Am J Phys Anthropol 152:287–293, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

闽南人的体质特征

在福建漳州地区调查了322例男性(城市男性为149例,乡村汉族男性为173例)和357例女性(城市女性为164例,乡村女性为193例)成人的86项体质指标,计算了24项体质指数,统计了指数分型情况,与我国族群资料进行了比较,对闽南人体质特征进行了初步分析。结果 1)闽南人有皱褶率高,有蒙古褶率低,眼裂高度眼裂多为狭窄型,眼外角多高于眼内角,鼻根高度多为中等型,直鼻背,颧部突出度多为微弱型;鼻基部男性多呈水平,女性多呈上翘;鼻翼高度多为中等,鼻孔最大径多为斜位,鼻翼较宽;男性耳垂多为圆形,女性多为三角形;上唇皮肤部高度多为中等,红唇男性薄型率、中等型均较高,女性薄型率最高,发黑,肤黄、眼褐。2)总体说来,闽南人头面部测量指标值介于北亚、南亚类型族群之间。3)从指数均数来看,闽南人男女性均为圆头型、高头型、狭面型,狭鼻型。城市女性为狭头型,城市男性、乡村男性、乡村女性为中头型。闽南人头面部指数值更接近于南亚类型族群。4)从体部指标值和体部指数来看。闽南人更接近于北亚类型族群。闽南人体质介于南亚与北亚类型族群之间,男性相对接近于北亚类型族群,女性相对接近于南亚类型族群。     

Ontogenetic scaling of the human nose in a longitudinal sample: Implications for genus Homo facial evolution

Researchers have hypothesized that nasal morphology, both in archaic Homo and in recent humans, is influenced by body mass and associated oxygen consumption demands required for tissue maintenance. Similarly, recent studies of the adult human nasal region have documented key differences in nasal form between males and females that are potentially linked to sexual dimorphism in body size, composition, and energetics. To better understand this potential developmental and functional dynamic, we first assessed sexual dimorphism in the nasal cavity in recent humans to determine when during ontogeny male‐female differences in nasal cavity size appear. Next, we assessed whether there are significant differences in nasal/body size scaling relationships in males and females during ontogeny. Using a mixed longitudinal sample we collected cephalometric and anthropometric measurements from n = 20 males and n = 18 females from 3.0 to 20.0+ years of age totaling n = 290 observations. We found that males and females exhibit similar nasal size values early in ontogeny and that sexual dimorphism in nasal size appears during adolescence. Moreover, when scaled to body size, males exhibit greater positive allometry in nasal size compared to females. This differs from patterns of sexual dimorphism in overall facial size, which are already present in our earliest age groups. Sexually dimorphic differences in nasal development and scaling mirror patterns of ontogenetic variation in variables associated with oxygen consumption and tissue maintenance. This underscores the importance of considering broader systemic factors in craniofacial development and may have important implications for the study of patters craniofacial evolution in the genus Homo. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:52–60, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Scaling relationships between craniofacial sexual dimorphism and body mass dimorphism in primates: implications for the fossil record

Craniofacial remains (the most abundant identifiable remains in the fossil record) potentially offer important information about body size dimorphism in extinct species. This study evaluates the scaling relationships between body mass dimorphism and different measures of craniofacial dimorphism, evaluating taxonomic differences in the magnitude and scaling of craniofacial dimorphism across higher taxonomic groups. Data on 40 dimensions from 129 primate species and subspecies demonstrate that few dimensions change proportionally with body mass dimorphism. Primates show general patterns of greater facial vs. neurocranial and orbital dimorphism, and greater dimorphism in lengths as opposed to breadths. Within any species, though, different craniofacial dimensions can yield very different reconstructions of size dimorphism. There are significant taxonomic differences in the relationships between size and craniofacial dimorphism among primate groups that can have a significant impact on reconstructions of body mass dimorphism. Hominoids tend to show lower degrees of facial dimorphism proportional to size dimorphism than other primates. This in turn implies that strong craniofacial dimorphism in Australopithecus africanus could imply very strong body size dimorphism, conflicting with the relatively modest size dimorphism inferred from postcrania. Different methods of estimating the magnitude of size dimorphism from craniofacial measurements yield similar results, and yield comparatively low percent prediction errors for a number of dimensions. However, confidence intervals for most estimates are so large as to render most estimates highly tentative.     

南京1号直立人头骨与肯尼亚KNM-ER 3733人类头骨化石的形态比较

KNM-ER 3733人类头骨化石的年代为距今1.78百万年,1975年发现于肯尼亚。Walker和Leakey注意到这具头骨与周口店直立人的在脑颅形态上很相近,但二者在年代上相差大约1百万年,故认为直立人形态在这1百万年期间是稳定的。长期来此观点缺乏更多的人类化石证据来支持。1993年在中国发现了南京1号人类头骨化石。该头骨与KNM-ER 3733头骨一样兼具脑颅和面颅,且都属于成年女性个体,但南京1号人类头骨化石的年代比KNM-ER 3733人类头骨化石的要晚大约1百万年。因此,南京1号人类头骨是目前所知的可用来验证直立人头骨形态是否在1百万年期间保持稳定的唯一合适的人类头骨化石材料。形态比较表明,这两个人类头骨化石的脑颅虽然在眶上圆枕上沟的发育程度、眶后收缩的程度、额骨横向隆起的程度、角圆枕和乳后突的发育与否、顶骨形状以及骨壁厚度的表现上有所差异,但有更多的形态性状显示出相近。这些相近表现在脑颅的长、宽、高值上;颅容量上;脑颅的低矮性上;脑颅最大宽之位置上;额骨、顶骨、枕骨之矢弧值的比例上;眶上圆枕的纤细上;顶骨的大小和矢向扁平性上;颞线位置和颞鳞顶缘的形状上;枕鳞的低宽形状上;上枕鳞与下枕鳞之间的转折形状和比例上;枕骨圆枕和枕骨圆枕上沟的发育程度上等。这两具头骨的面颅虽然有同属突颌型的面角、皆发育有鼻骨间嵴、两鼻骨组成的上部宽度与下部宽度皆差别很大,但有更多的形态性状显示出差别。这些差别表现在面型上、颜面上部扁平度上、眶形和眶型上、上颌额突外侧面的朝向上、鼻骨横向隆起程度上、鼻梁外突程度上、鼻型上、颧骨下缘外展程度上、颊高上、颧上颌下缘的形状上、上颌颧突基部的位置上以及颧结节的位置上等。因此,南京1号头骨与KNM-ER 3733头骨之间在脑颅上显示出较多的相近性状,在面颅上则显示出较多的相异性状。脑颅方面的相近性状大多具有分类上的鉴别价值。这两个头骨脑颅形态的相近支持把KNM-ER 3733头骨鉴定为"直立人"的观点;也提示了南京1号头骨的脑颅似乎保持着1百多万年前的"祖先"形态。如果直立人的某些成员在至少1百万年期间保持着形态稳定的话,则这种形态上的稳定主要是表现在脑颅形态上。这两具头骨的面颅形态上较大差异的意义,目前尚不清楚。     

Relationships between the frontal sinus and climatic conditions: a skeletal approach to cold adaptation

Previous studies in physical anthropology, using superficial facial features, show that the relationship between human facial morphology and climate is not clear. An alternate approach to the problem is the investigation of the deeper facio-anatomical structures (i.e., cranial sinuses and/or foramina) in relation to climatic variables. The present investigation statistically analyses the relationship between climatic conditions (wind chill equivalent temperatures and absolute humidities) and the occurrence and size of frontal sinuses in 153 Eskimo crania. Conditional results from tests of significance of differences and correlation suggest a relationship between low wind chill equivalent temperatures and small frontal sinus surface areas. These results are interpreted in light of cranial sinus function and environmental physiology.     

辽宁本溪青铜时代人骨

本文记述了辽宁本溪市庙后山出土的青铜时代颅骨的主要特征,并与其他地区青铜时代的和现代的颅骨特征进行比较,讨论了我国东北地区青铜时代居民与其邻近地区居民体质特征之间的关系。     

Influences of osteoclast deficiency on craniofacial growth in osteopetrotic (op/op) mice

It is well known that the defect in bone resorption in osteopetrotic (op/op) mice brings about deformation of the cranium and failure of tooth eruption. However, the influences on longitudinal growth of the craniofacial skeleton have not been elucidated. This study was thus conducted to examine craniofacial morphology and longitudinal changes in the op/op mice by means of morphometric analysis with lateral cephalograms. Lateral cephalograms, taken every 10 days from 10- to 90-day-old mice, were analyzed on a personal computer for 11 measurement items. For the nasal bone region, the most prominent differences were found between the op/op and normal mice. The anterior cranial base and occipital bone height presented almost equivalent growth changes in both the op/op and normal mice. The size of mandible, meanwhile, was significantly smaller in the op/op mice than in the normal controls. The gonial angle was also significantly larger in the op/op mice than in the normal mice throughout the experimental period. Thus, substantial differences in craniofacial growth were demonstrated in various areas of the craniofacial complex, which are assumed essentially due to the lack of osteoclastic bone resorption during growing period. Since the difference became more prominent in the anatomic regions relevant to the masticatory functions, it would be a reasonable assumption that reduced masticatory function is also a key determinant for the less-developed craniofacial skeleton in the op/op mouse.     

Severe nasal clefting and abnormal embryonic apoptosis in Alx3/Alx4 double mutant mice

A group of mouse aristaless-related genes has been implicated in functions in the development of the craniofacial skeleton. We have generated an Alx3 mutant allele in which the lacZ coding sequence is inserted in-frame in the Alx3 gene and the sequences encoding the conserved protein domains are deleted. Mice homozygous for this null allele are indistinguishable from wild-type mice. Compound mutants of Alx3 and Alx4, however, show severe craniofacial abnormalities that are absent in Alx4 single mutants. Alx3/Alx4 double mutant newborn mice have cleft nasal regions. Most facial bones and many other neural crest derived skull elements are malformed, truncated or even absent. The craniofacial defects in Alx3/Alx4 double mutant embryos become anatomically manifest around embryonic day 10.5, when the nasal processes appear to be abnormally positioned. This most probably leads to a failure of the medial nasal processes to fuse in the facial midline and subsequently to the split face phenotype. We detected a significant increase in apoptosis localised in the outgrowing frontonasal process in embryonic day 10.0 double mutant embryos, which we propose to be the underlying cause of the subsequent malformations.