Incubation temperature fluctuation does not affect incubation length and hatchling phenotype in the Chinese skink Plestiodon chinensis

Studies examining the effects of incubation temperature fluctuation on the phenotype of hatchling reptiles have shown species variation. To examine whether incubation temperature fluctuation has a key role in influencing the phenotype of hatchling Chinese skinks (Plestiodon chinensis), we incubated eggs produced by 20 females under five thermal regimes (treatments). Eggs in three treatments were incubated in three incubators, one set constant at 27 °C and two ramp-programmed at 27±3 °C and 27±5 °C on a cycle of 12 h (+) and 12 h (−). The remaining eggs were incubated in two chambers: one inside a room where temperatures varied from 23.0 to 31.1 °C, with a mean of 27.0 °C; the other outside the room where temperatures varied from 20.2 to 35.3 °C, with a mean of 26.1 °C. We found that: (1) for eggs at a given embryonic stage at ovipositon, the mean rather than the variance of incubation temperatures determined the length of incubation; (2) most (egg mass, embryonic stage at oviposition, incubation length and all examined hatchling traits except tail length and locomotor performance) of the examined variables were affected by clutch; and (3) body mass was the only hatchling trait that differed among the five treatments, but the differences were tiny. These findings suggest that incubation temperature fluctuation has no direct role in influencing incubation length and hatchling phenotype in P. chinensis.     

Water exchange of flexible-shelled eggs and its effect on hatchling traits in the Chinese skink,<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Eumeces chinensis</Emphasis>

Flexible-shelled eggs of the Chinese skink (Eumeces chinensis) were used to determine the routes of water exchange with the environment and the effects of water exchange on hatchling traits. Eggs were incubated under three different hydric conditions at 28 °C. One group (ground eggs) was half-buried in incubation substrate. The second group (upper eggs) rested on the ground eggs but did not contact the substrate directly, and the third group was placed on a plastic platform above the substrate. Ground and upper eggs increased in mass and hatched successfully, while all eggs resting on the plastic platform lost mass and died within a week. Hence, E. chinensis eggs cannot sustain water balance through exchange of water vapor in air alone, but can absorb water from the substrate and other eggs and develop well. Water gained by upper eggs was only 20% of that absorbed by ground eggs, but hatchlings from the two treatments did not differ in morphology or locomotor performance. Therefore, the degree of water exchange of E. chinesis eggs has little effect on embryonic development and hatchling traits. The insensitivity of the eggs to variations in water exchange may be an adaptation against extreme hydric conditions in a species that deposits its eggs close to the soil surface.Communicated by I.D. Hume     

不同孵化湿度下的乌龟卵孵化成功率及新生幼体特征

A total of 51 Chinese three-keeled pond turtle Chinemys reevesii eggs were incubated on wet and dry substrates (water potentials of - 12 kPa and - 300 kPa, respectively) at 30℃ to assess the influence of the hydric environments on egg survival and hatchling traits. Eggs incubated in the dry condition lost weight, whereas those incubated in the wet condition did not. The hydric environments did not affect incubation lengths (60.3 vs 60.7 days) as well as hatching successes (69.2% vs 88.0% ). Except for wet body mass and carapace width, which were larger for hatchlings from the -12 kPa treatment than from the -300 kPa treatment, the hydric environments did not affect most hatchling traits. These unaffected traits included dry body mass, carapace length, tail length, limb length, hatehling components (carcass, residual yolk and fat bodies), swimming performance and critical thermal minimum. In conclusion, within the water potential of -12 to -300 kPa, hydric environments have little effect on embryonic development and hatchling traits in Chinese three-keeled pond turtles [Acta Zoologica Sinica 50 (1) : 133 - 136, 2004].     

Effects of incubation temperature on the energetics of embryonic development and hatchling morphology in the Brisbane river turtle Emydura signata

Incubation temperature and the amount of water taken up by eggs from the substrate during incubation affects hatchling size and morphology in many oviparous reptiles. The Brisbane river turtle Emydura signata lays hard-shelled eggs and hatchling mass was unaffected by the amount of water gained or lost during incubation. Constant temperature incubation of eggs at 24 °C, 26 °C, 28 °C and 31 °C had no effect on hatchling mass, yolk-free hatchling mass, residual yolk mass, carapace length, carapace width, plastron length or plastron width. However, hatchlings incubated at 26 °C and 28 °C had wider heads than hatchlings incubated at 24 °C and 31 °C. Incubation period varied inversely with incubation temperature, while the rate of increase in oxygen consumption during the first part of incubation and the peak rate of oxygen consumption varied directly with incubation temperature. The total amount of oxygen consumed during development and hatchling production cost was significantly greater at 24 °C than at 26 °C, 28 °C and 31 °C. Hatchling mass and dimensions and total embryonic energy expenditure was directly proportional to initial egg mass. Accepted: 18 March 1998     

Energetics of embryonic development: effects of temperature on egg and hatchling composition in a butterfly

Phenotypic plasticity may allow an organism to adjust its phenotype to environmental needs. However, little is known about environmental effects on offspring biochemical composition and turnover rates, including energy budgets and developmental costs. Using the tropical butterfly Bicyclus anynana and employing a full-factorial design with two oviposition and two developmental temperatures, we explore the consequences of temperature variation on egg and hatchling composition, and the associated use and turnover of energy and egg compounds. At the lower temperature, larger but fewer eggs were produced. Larger egg sizes were achieved by provisioning these eggs with larger quantities of all compounds investigated (and thus more energy), whilst relative egg composition was rather similar to that of smaller eggs laid at the higher temperature. Turnover rates during embryonic development differed across developmental temperatures, suggesting an emphasis on hatchling quality (i.e. protein content) at the more stressful lower temperature, but on storage reserves (i.e. lipids) at the higher temperature. These differences may represent adaptive maternal effects. Embryonic development was much more efficient at the lower temperature, providing a possible mechanism underlying the temperature-size rule.     

Embryonic development rate and hatchling phenotypes in the Chinese three-keeled pond turtle (Chinemys reevesii): The influence of fluctuating temperature versus constant temperature

Although the effects of constant temperatures on hatchling traits have been extensively studied in reptiles, the effects of fluctuating temperatures remain poorly understood. Eggs of the Chinese three-keeled pond turtle (Chinemys reevesii) were incubated at a constant temperatures (28 °C) and two fluctuating temperatures (28±3 °C and 28±6 °C) to test for the influence of thermal environment on incubation duration, hatchling traits, and post-hatching growth. Incubation duration was shorter at constant temperature than at fluctuating temperatures. The sex ratio of hatchlings varied among temperature treatments, with more females from 28±6 °C than from 28 °C. The size and mass were greater for hatchlings from a constant temperature than from fluctuating ones, but this difference in body size disappeared when the hatchlings were 3 months old. In addition, the swimming ability, survival, and growth of hatchlings from fluctuating temperatures did not differ from those of hatchlings from constant temperature, when they were kept at an artificial environment without food scarcity or predation. Therefore, the thermal environments with various temperature fluctuations used in this study do not significantly affect fitness-related hatchling traits in this species.     

Effects of acclimation and egg-incubation temperature on selected temperature by hatchling western painted turtles (Chrysemys picta bellii)

The ability of hatchling turtles to detect environmental temperature differences and to effectively select preferred temperature is a function that critically impacts survival. In some turtle species, temperature preference may be influenced by embryonic and post-hatching conditions, such as egg-incubation and acclimation temperature. We tested for effects of embryonic incubation temperature (27.5 °C, 30 °C) and acclimation temperature (20 °C, 25 °C) on the selected temperature and movement patterns of 32 Chrysemys picta bellii (Reptilia: Emydidae) hatchlings in an aquatic thermal gradient of 14-34 °C and in single-temperature (20 °C, 25 °C) control tests. Among 10-11 month old hatchlings, acclimation temperature and egg-incubation temperature influenced temperature selection and movement patterns. Acclimation temperature affected activity and movement: in thermal gradient and single-temperature control tests, 25 °C-acclimated turtles relocated between chambers significantly more frequently than individuals acclimated to 20 °C. Acclimation temperature also affected temperature selection: 20 °C-acclimated turtles selected a specific temperature during gradient tests, but 25 °C-acclimated turtles did not. Among 20 °C-acclimated turtles, egg-incubation temperature was inversely related to selected temperature: hatchling turtles incubated at 27.5 °C selected the warmest temperature available (34 °C); individuals incubated at 30 °C selected the coldest temperature (14 °C). These results suggest that interactions of environmental conditions may influence post-hatching thermoregulatory behavior in C. picta bellii, a factor that ultimately affects fitness.     

Changes in egg and body temperature indicate triggering of egg desertion at a body mass threshold in fasting incubating blue petrels (Halobaena caerulea)

The triggering of transitory egg desertion in fasting and incubating blue petrels (Halobaena caerulea, nocturnal burrowing seabirds living in the subantarctic region) was investigated by continuously monitoring both body temperature (T _sto) and egg temperature (T _egg) with a telemetry system, and by measuring body mass (BM) loss. The birds were kept captive in their burrow and incubated day and night without any interruption; there was no day-night cycle in T _sto and T _egg, which averaged 39.9 °C and 32.0 °C, respectively. There was no evidence of hypothermia as a way to save energy in this fasting situation. Egg desertion occurred at night and was an abrupt and definitive phenomenon reflected by a simultaneous fall in T _egg and a peak in T _sto. After egg desertion, a distinct day-night cycle of body temperature was observed, T _sto being 0.6 °C higher during night-time (P < 0.05), probably reflecting increased nocturnal activity. BM at egg desertion averaged 166.7 ± 3.8 g in telemetered birds and 164.4 ± 1.6 g in␣a group of free-living birds. Throughout fasting, the␣specific daily BM loss remained at 46 ± 1 g · kg⁻¹ · day⁻¹, but increased sharply below a critical BM of 160.0 ± 2.5 g. Thus, fasting incubating blue petrels spontaneously desert their egg when reaching a BM threshold. This BM is very close to a critical value in fasting birds and mammals that corresponds to a critical depletion of fat stores and to a shift from lipid to protein utilization. This strongly suggests that such a metabolic shift triggers behavioural changes leading to egg desertion and refeeding, which is of great relevance to the understanding of the long-term control of food intake and BM. Accepted: 16 July 1998     

Effects of temperature on performance and phenotypic selection on plant traits in alpine Ranunculus acris

Discovering temperature effects on the performance of tundra plants is important in the light of expected climate change. In this 4-year study on alpine Ranunculus acris, I test the hypothesis that temperature influences flowering phenology, reproductive success, growth, population dynamics, and phenotypic selection on quantitative traits, by experimental warming using open-top chambers (OTCs). Warming significantly advanced flowering phenology in only one season. Seed number and weight were significantly increased by warming during the first three seasons, but not in the fourth. Plants inside OTCs produced bigger leaves than control plants in the fourth season, but leaf number was unaffected by the OTC treatment. Despite increased seed number and weight, the density of flowering plants decreased inside OTCs compared to control plots, possibly because of a higher graminoid cover inside OTCs. Phenotypic-selection regression showed a significant selection differential and gradient in the direction of larger leaf sizes in control plants, whereas no selection on leaf size was detected on warmed plants. The direction and strength of selection on flowering time, flower number, and leaf number did not differ between control and warmed plants. The results suggest that increased reproductive output of R. acris may not be sufficient to maintain current population density under a denser vegetation cover. Received: 1 December 1998 / Accepted: 14 April 1999     

环境因子对农业土壤有机碳分解的影响

为研究环境因子对有机C在农业土壤中分解的影响 ,在不同温度、水分及土壤质地下进行小麦和水稻秸秆及其根培养实验 ,结果表明 ,在同样的水热条件下 ,秸秆有机C的分解量大于根的分解量 .在温度较低情况下 ,升高温度促进了有机C的分解 ;而在温度较高的情况下 ,升高温度对有机C分解的促进作用降低 .在非淹水条件下 ,温度对有机C分解的影响随着时间的延长而逐步减小 .淹水条件下培养一周后 ,温度对有机C分解的影响不随时间而变化 .当含水量为 30 0 g·kg-1和 5 0 0 g·kg-1时 ,有机C分解较快 ,而在 2 0 0 g·kg-1和淹水条件下则分解较慢 ,空白对照培养结果的趋势是分解速率随水分含量的增加而加快 .培养实验的第一个月内 ,小麦秸秆有机C的分解量与土壤粘粒含量呈负相关     

Effects of age, weight, hormones, and hibernation on breeding success in boreal toads (Bufo boreas boreas)

The goals of this study were to test the effects of exogenous hormones and hibernation on breeding behavior and gamete release by boreal toads (Bufo boreas boreas). Each year, a subset of 77 toads was hibernated and then paired with hibernated or nonhibernated mates and treated with luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analogue (LHRHa), human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), or left untreated. Amplexus and egg and sperm production were recorded. At 1 yr of age, only 19% of pairs exhibited amplexus, and no sperm or eggs were produced. At 2 and 3 yr of age, most male toads treated with LHRHa exhibited amplexus (56.9% and 100%, respectively). Among 2-yr-old males, amplexus was more prevalent (P < 0.05) in those that were hibernated than in those that were nonhibernated (54.0% and 33.3%, respectively), but most males in each group (93.3% and 75%, respectively) produced sperm in response to LHRHa treatment. Only one 2-yr-old and two 3-yr-old females produced eggs. At 4 yr of age, eight females produced eggs, but two died from egg retention. More nonhibernated than hibernated females developed eggs (7 of 10 vs. 1 of 10, P < 0.05). Mean (±SD) weight of female toads producing eggs (58.9 ± 11.9 g) was greater (P < 0.05) than that of nonproducing females (43.6 ± 7.0 g). Similarly, four of seven nonhibernated females (58.8 ± 8.3 g) produced eggs at 5 yr of age. All eggs were produced by females treated once with LHRHa. Number of eggs per female varied (141 to 3307), and development to tadpoles was low (0 to 36.5%), although tadpoles did become toadlets. In conclusion, male and female boreal toads matured at 2 and 4 yr of age, respectively, and heavier females were more likely to produce eggs. To enhance breeding success, males should be hibernated and treated with LHRHa. In contrast, female productivity was enhanced by improving their body condition instead of subjecting them to hibernation prior to LHRHa treatment.     

中华花龟幼体热耐受性、体温昼夜变化和运动表现的热依赖性

为研究中华花龟(Ocadia sinensis)幼体的热耐受性和运动表现热依赖性，设计了具有和缺乏温度梯度两种热环境，研究幼龟体温的昼夜变化。高、低温耐受性分别用临界高温和临界低温表示，体温为泄殖腔温度，水温和气温分别是幼龟所处位置的水温和1cm高气温。临界高温和临界低温分别为41．9℃和1．8℃。在有温度梯度的热环境中，体温、水温和气温平均值有显著的昼夜差异，水温和体温的日平均值无显著差异，两者均大于气温的日平均值。在缺乏温度梯度的热环境中，体温、气温和水温平均值亦有显著的昼夜差异，但气温、水温和体温的日平均温度无显著差异。温度梯度是幼龟进行体温调节不可或缺的条件，选择体温有显著的昼夜变化，最大值和最小值分别为29．2℃和25．4℃。在02：00—06：00时间段内，幼龟选择体温明显较低，其它测定时刻的选择体温无显著差异。幼龟各测定时刻的平均体温与平均气温和水温均呈正相关。处于温度梯度中幼龟特定气温的体温比处于缺乏温度梯度中的幼龟高3．7℃，这种差异是前者利用温度梯度进行体温调节的结果；处于不同热环境中幼龟特定水温的体温无显著差异。体温显著影响幼龟的运动表现。18—39℃体温范围内，疾跑速随体温增加而增加，36℃和39℃体温的幼龟疾跑速最大；体温达到41℃时，疾跑速显著下降。体温较高的幼龟的最大持续运动距离大于体温较低的幼龟。偏相关分析显示，疾跑速与最大持续运动距离和停顿次数呈显著的正相关，停顿次数与最大持续运动距离呈负相关。     

Influence of temperature and salinity on embryonic development ofParacentrotus lividus (Lmk, 1816)

The combined effects of temperature and salinity on early development of the sea urchinParacentrotus lividus (Lmk, 1816) are reported. The optimal temperature-salinity combinations for development are 18 °–20 °C and 34–35‰; there is a significant temperature-salinity interaction. The optimal conditions found in the experiments are above the mean yearly values for the sampled population's environment (North Adriatic Sea), being more similar to those of the Tyrrhenian Sea. These results suggest that embryonic tolerances to temperature and salinity are under genetic and not environmental control.     

Phenotypic effects of thermal mean and fluctuations on embryonic development and hatchling traits in a lacertid lizard, Takydromus septentrionalis

How fluctuating temperatures influence reptilian embryos and hatchlings has attracted increasing scientific attention, but is poorly known. We conducted an incubation experiment with a factorial design of two mean temperatures (24 vs. 28 degrees C) and three diel thermal fluctuations (0, +/-3, +/-6 degrees C) to determine the effects of diel thermal fluctuations and mean temperature on incubation duration and hatchling phenotypes. Both diel thermal fluctuations and mean temperature significantly affected incubation duration, but not hatching success. Incubation duration increased with increasing temperature fluctuations at a mean temperature of 24 degrees C, but not at a mean temperature of 28 degrees C. The significant interaction between diel thermal fluctuations and mean temperature on hatchling morphology indicated that the effect of thermal fluctuations depended on the mean temperature. Hatchling mass differed significantly between 24+/-6 and 28+/-6 degrees C, but not between the two constant temperatures or the temperatures with +/-3 degrees C fluctuations. At a mean temperature of 24 degrees C, the effect of thermal fluctuations on hatchling size was marginally significant, with relatively large hatchlings at the constant temperature; at a mean temperature of 28 degrees C, thermal fluctuations had no impact on hatchling size. The locomotor performances were significantly affected by mean temperature rather than diel thermal fluctuations. Therefore, diel thermal fluctuations around a given mean temperature do not affect hatchling phenotypes in a relatively large magnitude, but the influence of diel thermal fluctuations may differ with changing mean temperatures.     

The effect of pH on embryonic and larval development in smooth and palmate newts, Triturus vulgaris and T. helveticus

The distribution of smooth newts, Triturus vulgaris , and palmate newts, Triturus helveticus , in north-west Europe is related to geology and water quality. This study compared the development of the eggs and larvae of the two species under sublethal acidic and neutral conditions. Newt embryos raised under low pH hatched at an earlier stage of development, at a smaller size, and before those raised under neutral conditions. T. vulgaris hatched at a smaller size than T. helveticus , but pH did not affect the species differentially. Larvae of both species grew to a larger size under neutral than under acid conditions. Larvae raised in heterospecific pairs grew at least as well as those raised in conspecific pairs. Feeding was depressed under acid conditions, and reduced growth may therefore be associated with changes in the behaviour of newt larvae and their prey.     

Influence of spring and summer water temperature on brook charr, Salvelinus fontinalis, growth and age structure in the Ford River, Michigan

Synopsis The influence of late spring and summer water temperatures on brook charr, Salvelinus fontinalis, growth and age structure was evaluated from 1984 to 1991 in the Ford River, Michigan. Temperature was monitored and brook charr sampled for vital statistics from late May through September using fyke nets and weirs at four locations within a 25.8 km section of stream. Scale analysis was used to determine captured brook charr age, past length at age and relative annual growth rates. Late spring and summer water temperature patterns varied between years with the greatest variability occurring in May and June. Age and size structure also varied between years and was significantly related to temperature. Years with cooler late spring and summer temperature patterns were dominated by older (age 2 and 3), larger brook charr, while years with warmer spring and summer temperature patterns were dominated by younger (age 1), smaller brook charr. Spring and summer temperature did not appear to have a significant effect on the growth of age 0 or age 1 brook charr. However, temperature was negatively related to brook charr growth from age 2 on. As spring and summer water temperatures are critical to brook charr growth and survival, it is important that a streams thermal regime be considered when establishing management goals for this species.     

Influence of incubation temperature on productivity and quality of Spodoptera litura nucleopolyhedrovirus

Mass production of baculoviruses by in vivo methods is influenced by several factors like larval age at virus treatment, virus concentration and the incubation temperature. The larval age at virus treatment and virus concentration should be synchronized to result in insect death at a fully grown larval stage to maximize the productivity. Since temperature influences both the growth of the larvae and replication of the virus, we evaluated the influence of incubation temperature on mass production of Spodoptera litura nucleopolyhedrovirus (SpltNPV) at four different temperature regimes viz., 25, 30, and 35 °C and room temperature by diet-surface contamination method. Incubation of early fifth instar larvae dosed with 3932.4 polyhedral inclusion bodies (PIB)/mm² at 25 °C enhanced the virus productivity to 6.623 × 10¹¹ PIB yield/100 inoculated larvae, while it was only 1.779 × 10¹¹ at 35 °C. The disease progression in the virus treated larvae was slow with median lethal time (LT₅₀) of 208 h at 25 °C as compared to 136 h at 35 °C. In spite of the slow death which means lower production cycles/year, the productivity/year was higher at 25 °C than at other temperatures. The SpltNPV produced at 25 °C was also found to be of superior quality in terms of low bacterial contaminants than at 35 °C. Neonate larval bioassay conducted with viruses produced at different temperature treatments revealed that they were similar in their activity and virulence. Hence our results indicate that maintenance of the SpltNPV production facility at 25 °C would enhance both the virus productivity and quality.     

Thermal tolerance of Frankliniella occidentalis: Effects of temperature, exposure time, and gender

Western flower thrips (WFT), Frankliniella occidentalis, is an invasive worldwide pest that causes great economic loss. Temperature plays an important role in shaping insect distributions. In this study, we report the survival rates of 3-day-old WFT exposed to rapid changes in extreme high and low temperatures. Temperature, exposure time, and gender all significantly affected the survival of adult WFT, with the lowest survival associated with more extreme temperatures and/or longer exposures. The temperature required to kill 50% of exposed WFT individuals (LT₅₀) decreased with extended exposure time, but females were more tolerant to extreme temperature than males. Investigation of rapid cold or heat hardening suggested that a short prior exposure to a sub-lethal low or high temperature increased WFT survival during a subsequent exposure to a lethal temperature. Tolerance of extreme temperatures and an ability to undergo rapid hardening are of great ecological relevance in determining the geographic distribution of WFT, allowing it to survive better in temporary bouts of extreme temperature stress. Our findings provide useful information on the environmental limits on the distribution of WFT, which have implications for control of this pest.