Visual and oculomotor activity of first-grade school students during reading texts of varying complexity

We present the results of investigation of visual perception (VP) and oculomotor activity during reading texts of various difficulties from the monitor screen in children 7–8 years of age. It has been shown that, at the initial stage of the development of the reading skill, morphological and psycholinguistic parameters of the text have no significant effect on the oculomotor activity. The degree of formation of VPand its structural components more clearly manifested in the first-graders in reading plain text and is not sufficient for a successful reading of the increased complexity of the text.     

Eye movement parameters in reading sentences with syntactic ambiguities in Russian

We studied eye movement parameters in reading syntactically ambiguous sentences with the feminine variant of relative clause in Russian. A priori difficulty in analyzing the structure of the sentence leads to the increased time of its reading, compared with the time of reading control (unambiguous) sentences. The time of reading increases due to higher frequencies of regressive saccades made by the subjects for rereading the ambiguous fragments of the sentence. This fact, in turn, leads to an increased number of fixations and their longer duration. The total reading time for the particular words that make up the ambiguous fragment depended on disambiguation result (the type of closure). When the subjects attached the subordinate clause to the first noun of the noun group (early closure), the time of reading this noun increased, compared to the reading time required for the second noun. When the subjects chose the second noun (late closure), the time of reading either of the two did not differ. Our results indicate that the increased time of reading the first noun of the noun group attached to the subordinate clause depends on the prevalence of early closure in the Russian language.     

Serum lipid fatty acids, phonological processing, and reading in children with oral clefts

Reading skill is suggested to be related to phonological processing ability and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Here we investigated whether fatty acids (FAs) are related to phonological processing, whether the relations between PUFAs and reading generalize to other FAs, whether these relations are mediated by phonological processing, and whether relations of FAs are specific for language-related functions. Blood samples of 49 ten-year-old children with oral clefts were collected for FA proportion analysis in serum cholesteryl esters and phospholipids. On the same day, they performed tasks of phonological processing, reading, and both verbal and nonverbal intelligence. Sequential regression analyses (adjusted for age, gender, and cleft type) showed that phonological processing was inversely related to myristic acid in phospholipids and positively related to eicosapentaenoic acid in cholesteryl esters. Reading was inversely related to palmitoleic and gammalinolenic acids in phospholipids. The relations between FAs and reading were not mediated by phonological processing and FAs related only to language-related functions.     

A causal link between visual spatial attention and reading acquisition

Reading is a unique, cognitive human skill crucial to life in modern societies, but, for about 10% of the children, learning to read is extremely difficult. They are affected by a neurodevelopmental disorder called dyslexia. Although impaired auditory and speech sound processing is widely assumed to characterize dyslexic individuals, emerging evidence suggests that dyslexia could arise from a more basic cross-modal letter-to-speech sound integration deficit. Letters have to be precisely selected from irrelevant and cluttering letters by rapid orienting of visual attention before the correct letter-to-speech sound integration applies. Here we ask whether prereading visual parietal-attention functioning may explain future reading emergence and development. The present 3 year longitudinal study shows that prereading attentional orienting--assessed by serial search performance and spatial cueing facilitation--captures future reading acquisition skills in grades 1 and 2 after controlling for age, nonverbal IQ, speech-sound processing, and nonalphabetic cross-modal mapping. Our findings provide the first evidence that visual spatial attention in preschoolers specifically predicts future reading acquisition, suggesting new approaches for early identification and efficient prevention of dyslexia.     

Self-reported reading problems in parents of twins with reading difficulties.

Parents of 323 twin pairs with reading disability (RD) reported significantly more problems learning to read (16% of mothers and 33% of fathers) than parents of 309 twin pairs without reading difficulties (6% of mothers and 9% of fathers). These rates of self-reported reading problems in parents of twins are highly similar to those previously obtained in parents of non-twin children with RD and controls, suggesting that the etiology of reading deficits in twin and non-twin children may also be highly similar. Moreover, within both the RD and control samples, twins whose parents self-reported a positive history of reading problems had lower reading performance test scores, on average, than those whose parents reported no reading problems. Therefore, results of the present twin study support those of previous studies with non-twin children in which parental self-reports have been found to provide a valid index of family history status for reading difficulties.     

Reading and reading disturbance

Recent functional neuroimaging studies are generating novel insights into our knowledge of skilled and disturbed reading. In neurologically normal subjects, a double dissociation in neural activation in response to reading words and pseudowords has been revealed that corresponds to that observed in the comparison of semantic and phonological tasks. In patients with acquired dyslexia, functional imaging is demonstrating re-organisation within the reading system; in developmental dyslexia, functional imaging is being used to identify the impact of rehabilitation. Together, these findings have implications for cognitive models of reading that have previously relied on input from behavioural data.     

White matter pathways in reading

Skilled reading requires mapping of visual text to sound and meaning. Because reading relies on neural systems spread across the brain, a full understanding of this cognitive ability involves the identification of pathways that communicate information between these processing regions. In the past few years, diffusion tensor imaging has been used to identify correlations between white matter properties and reading skills in adults and children. White matter differences have been found in left temporo-parietal areas and in posterior callosal tracts. We review these findings and relate them to possible pathways that are important for various aspects of reading. We describe how the results from diffusion tensor imaging can be integrated with functional results in good and poor readers.     

An open reading frame upstream from the nifH gene of Klebsiella pneumoniae

An open reading frame upstream from nifHDK operon of Klebsiella pneumoniae had been described. The orientation of this open reading frame is opposite to that of nifHDK and sequence homology was found between the open reading frame promoter and the promoter of nifHDK operon. A recombinant plasmid carrying the promoter region of the open reading frame fused to the beta-galactosidase gene was constructed. Strains of E.coli were transformed with the plasmid containing this open reading frame promoter-lacZ fusion or co-transformed with it and a plasmid carrying the nifA gene. An appreciable activity of beta-galactosidase was found in strains which received both plasmids, indicating that the promoter of the open reading frame can be activated by the product of nifA gene. Thus, the open reading frame found between nifHDK operon and nifJ behaves just like other nif genes of K.pneumoniae in requiring the product of nifA as the positive effector for expression.     

A genome‐wide association study for reading and language abilities in two population cohorts

Candidate genes have been identified for both reading and language, but most of the heritable variance in these traits remains unexplained. Here, we report a genome‐wide association meta‐analysis of two large cohorts: population samples of Australian twins and siblings aged 12–25 years (n = 1177 from 538 families), and a younger cohort of children of the UK Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and their Children (aged 8 and 9 years; maximum n = 5472). Suggestive association was indicated for reading measures and non‐word repetition (NWR), with the greatest support found for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the pseudogene, ABCC13 (P = 7.34 × 10^?8), and the gene, DAZAP1 (P = 1.32 × 10^?6). Gene‐based analyses showed significant association (P < 2.8 × 10^?6) for reading and spelling with genes CD2L1, CDC2L2 and RCAN3 in two loci on chromosome 1. Some support was found for the same SNPs having effects on both reading skill and NWR, which is compatible with behavior genetic evidence for influences of reading acquisition on phonological‐task performance. The results implicate novel candidates for study in additional cohorts for reading and language abilities.     

Individual Differences in the Effect of Orthographic/Phonological Conflict on Rhyme and Spelling Decisions

In typical readers, orthographic knowledge has been shown to influence phonological decisions. In the present study, we used visual rhyme and spelling tasks to investigate the interaction of orthographic and phonological information in adults with varying reading skill. Word pairs that shared both orthography and phonology (e.g., throat/boat), differed in both orthography and phonology (e.g., snow/arm), shared only orthography (e.g., farm/warm), and shared only phonology (e.g., vote/boat) were visually presented to university students who varied in reading ability. For rhyme judgment, participants were slower and less accurate to accept rhyming pairs when words were spelled differently and to reject non-rhyming pairs when words were spelled similarly. Similarly, for spelling judgments, participants were slower and less accurate when indicating that word endings were spelled differently when words rhymed, and slower and less accurate when indicating that words were spelled similarly when words did not rhyme. Crucially, while these effects were clear at the group level, there were large individual differences in the extent to which participants were impacted by conflict. In two separate samples, reading skill was associated with the extent to which orthographic conflict impacted rhyme decisions such that individuals with better nonword reading performance were less impacted by orthographic conflict. Thus, university students with poorer reading skills may differ from their peers either in the reading strategies they use or in the degree to which they automatically access word form information. Understanding these relationships is important for understanding the roles that reading processes play in readers of different skill.     

The power of print reading: comics in the classroom

Evidence from neuroscience and psychological studies supporting benefits of print reading over digital reading has recently been discussed in these columns (Perbal 2017 J. Cell Commun. Signal. 11:1–4). In the present commentary, I would like to add my perspective as a Humanities educator, and build upon the idea that print reading results in better comprehension, learning and communication. The argumentation that is presented herein is based on a study performed in a French Comics language class aimed at broadening students' knowledge and experience of graphic novels, and providing them with a cultural representation in the foreign language. The results that are discussed in this commentary indicate that upon reading printed books students created connections for a more meaningful learning experience, leading to personal growth and linguistic development. The impact these graphic novels had on students’ learning capacity and relationship to reading was tremendous. The kinesthetic relationship with printed text was deeply enriching and gratifying. The stimulatory effects on their imagination allowed for a more creative reading, and a deeper comprehension, resulting in meaningful communication.     

Role of e-reader adoption in life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of book reading activities

Purpose

The purpose of this research is to identify at what extent e-book reading reduces global warming potential (GWP) of book reading activities relative to that of reading only paper books. Past studies assume e-books and paper books are interchangeable during consumption, but adopting e-book reading can alter reading patterns in reality. This research comparatively assessed the GWP of reading only paper books and that of reading pattern of after e-reader adoption of consumer segments.

Methods

We computed GWP of book reading activities of consumer segments that include a life cycle of paper book, e-book, and e-book reading device. Two e-book devices were considered: a designated e-book device (e-reader) and a tablet. The functional units are book reading activities per person and per person-book, which account the number of books purchased or acquired and the reading hours per person. We collected data through a web survey in the USA. Consumer segmentation was performed by analyzing the level of importance in the aspects of book reading activities as a measurement variable. To observe the changes in reading patterns upon e-reader adoption within the same population, we conducted a 3-month social experiment involving e-readers in the USA.

Results and discussion

Adopting e-readers was discovered to reduce both the GWP per person and the GWP per person-book of book reading activities. The GWP of e-books read with an e-reader and the GWP of paper books were found to break even at 4.7 books per year, provided consumers read less than 11 h a day. According to the web survey, e-reader users purchase more than seven e-books annually on average, which resulted in a smaller GWP per person-book relative to that of one paper book. Furthermore, the GWP per person in the social experiment was smaller for e-reader adopters than those who only read paper books because they substituted e-books for paper books. The overall book reading volume remains unchanged upon e-reader adoption.

Conclusions

Adoption of e-readers reduces the GWP from book reading activities with only paper books, provided more than 4.7 paper books are substituted by e-books annually, and provided consumers’ total consumption volume remain unchanged. E-reader adopters read sufficient number of e-books to break even with paper books. However, most e-reader adopters are yet to fully abandon paper books for e-books. Analyzing the differences in the reading experience between e-books and paper books is a future task.

     

Evidence for translational repression of the SOCS-1 major open reading frame by an upstream open reading frame

The suppressor of cytokine signalling 1 protein (SOCS-1) belongs to a novel family of cytokine inducible factors which function as inhibitors of the JAK/STAT pathway. While SOCS-1 previously has been described as a single-exon gene, here we present evidence for an additional 5' exon, separated by a 509 bp intron from exon 2. Exon 1 and part of exon 2 contain an open reading frame of 115 nt, ending one nucleotide upstream of the major reading frame. Using SOCS-1-promoter/luciferase constructs, we investigated which sequences are involved in the regulation of SOCS-1 expression. Serial promoter deletion clones indicate the localization and functionality of SP1, interferon-stimulated responsive elements (ISRE), and interferon-gamma-activated sites (GAS) promoter elements in the SOCS-1 5' flanking region. We present evidence that the upstream open reading frame (uORF) represses the translation of the downstream major open reading frame (mORF). Mutating the start codon of the uORF relieves this repression. Our data indicate that expression of the SOCS-1 protein is repressed on translational level by a mechanism, which bears similarities to that postulated for genes like retinoic acid receptor beta2 (RARbeta2), S-adenosylmethionine-decarboxylase (AdoMetDC), Bcl-2, and others.     

Potential open reading frames within 5'-untranslated regions of eukaryotic mRNAs

It is known that 5'-untranslated sequences of eukaryotic mRNA often contain AUG triplets, which may serve as the sites of translation initiation. It is thought that these leader open reading frames can fulfil the regulatory functions and encode functionally active proteins. However, they have been incompletely characterized. The article deals with the context organization of leader reading frames of eukaryotic mRNAs. It has been shown that their characteristics correlate with the position relative to the protein-encoding sequence, which may be associated with the efficiency of initiation of translation.     

Psychophysiological Correlates of Writing and Reading Difficulties in Children of Elementary School Age

A psychophysiological study of the mechanisms underlying writing and reading difficulties at elementary school included assessment of the actual level of speech development, language abilities, intellectual functions, visual memory, visuomotor coordination, and neuropsychological parameters of first- and third- or fourth-grade students. The leading mechanisms of writing and reading difficulties were identified for different stages of skill formation. The role of factors determining the efficiency of learning changed accordingly. From the first to the third (fourth) grade, a decrease was observed in the role of the factors of speech development, formation of motor skills, visual perception, and visual memory, while the voluntary organization of activity, working capacity, and fatigability became the most significant factors. At all stages of teaching writing and reading, the rate of teaching activity must correspond to the functional and adaptive capabilities of schoolchildren.     

The Relation between Reading Skills and Eye Movement Patterns in Adolescent Readers: Evidence from a Regular Orthography

Over the past decades, the relation between reading skills and eye movement behavior has been well documented in English-speaking cohorts. As English and German differ substantially with regard to orthographic complexity (i.e. grapheme-phoneme correspondence), we aimed to delineate specific characteristics of how reading speed and reading comprehension interact with eye movements in typically developing German-speaking (Austrian) adolescents. Eye movements of 22 participants (14 females; mean age = 13;6 years;months) were tracked while they were performing three tasks, namely silently reading words, texts, and pseudowords. Their reading skills were determined by means of a standardized German reading speed and reading comprehension assessment (Lesegeschwindigkeits- und -verständnistest für Klassen 6−12). We found that (a) reading skills were associated with various eye movement parameters in each of the three reading tasks; (b) better reading skills were associated with an increased efficiency of eye movements, but were primarily linked to spatial reading parameters, such as the number of fixations per word, the total number of saccades and saccadic amplitudes; (c) reading speed was a more reliable predictor for eye movement parameters than reading comprehension; (d) eye movements were highly correlated across reading tasks, which indicates consistent reading performances. Contrary to findings in English-speaking cohorts, the reading skills neither consistently correlated with temporal eye movement parameters nor with the number or percentage of regressions made while performing any of the three reading tasks. These results indicate that, although reading skills are associated with eye movement patterns irrespective of language, the temporal and spatial characteristics of this association may vary with orthographic consistency.     

Longitudinal Stability in Reading Comprehension Is Largely Heritable from Grades 1 to 6

Reading comprehension is a foundational academic skill and significant attention has focused on reading development. This report is the first to examine the stability and change in genetic and environmental influences on reading comprehension across Grades 1 to 6. This developmental range is particularly important because it encompasses the timespan in which most children move from learning how to read to using reading for learning. Longitudinal simplex models were fitted separately for two independent twin samples (N = 706; N = 976). Results suggested that the shared environment contributed to variance in early but not later reading. Instead, stability in reading development was largely mediated by continuous genetic influences. Thus, although reading is clearly a learned skill and the environment remains important for reading development, individual differences in reading comprehension appear to be also influenced by a core of genetic stability that persists through the developmental course of reading.     

Causal models of reading disability: a twin study.

The genetic and environmental relationships among measures of phoneme awareness, naming speed, Intelligence Quotient (IQ), and reading performance were investigated in 623 identical and fraternal twin pairs tested in the Colorado Learning Disabilities Research Center. A Cholesky decomposition analysis of these measures provided evidence supporting the double deficit hypothesis that difficulties in phonological processing and naming speed both contribute to reading disability. Additionally, the model revealed marginally significant genetic and significant non-shared environmental relationships between IQ and reading independent of naming speed and phoneme awareness. Thus a more complete causal model of reading disability should include IQ as well as measures of phonological processing and naming speed.